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A    DECADE  OF   AMERICAN 
GOVERNMENT   IN   THE   PHILIPPINES 


William  Howard  Taft. 


A   DECADE  OF 
AMERICAN   GOVERNMENT 

IN  THE   PHILIPPINES 

1903-1913 

BY 
DAVID    P.  BARROWS,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

PROFESSOR  OF  POLITICAL  SCIENCE  IN  THE 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA.  FORMERLY 
CITY  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  SCHOOLS,  MA- 
NILA, 1900-01;  CHIEF  OF  THE  BUREAU  OF 
NON-CHRISTIAN  TRIBES  OF  THE  PHILIP- 
PINES, 1901-03;  DIRECTOR  OF  EDUCATION 
FOR  THE  PHILIPPINES,   1903-09 


h" 


lOjICAU  OF  1:  .i\H\V  RELATIONS 

Hnivj.i.^  of  C«iItornU 


WORLD    BOOK    COMPANY 

YONKERS-ON-HUDSON,  NEW  YORK 

1914 


PUBLISHER'S   NOTE. 


A  Decade  of  American  Government  in  the  Philippines 
was  prepared  as  an  additional  chapter  to  a  third  edition  of 
the  author's  History  of  the  Pliilippines,  first  published  in 
1903,  and  is  separately  printed  for  the  convenience  of 
those  desiring  a  brief  historical  review  of  the  events  of 
the  last  ten  years.  For  some  account  of  the  ethnology  of 
the  islands,  their  discovery  and  development  under  Span- 
ish rule,  and  of  the  first  yeare  of  American  occupation 
from  1898  to  1902,  reference  is  made  to  the  larger  work, 
also  published  by  World  Book  Company. 


BUR.  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIOMS 


Copyright,  1914,  by  World  Book  Company 
All  rights  of   reproduction   and   translation   reserved 

BDAGP — 2 


,»._  HF.LATIONS 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Prologue vii 

Policy  of  the  United  States 1 

Achievements  of  Governor  Taft 2 

Ladronism 3 

Epidemics 5 

Agricultural  Distress  and  Economic  Crisis 6 

Settlement  with  the  Catholic  Church 8 

Administration  of  Governor-General  Wright 10 

Economic  Policy 11 

Building  of  Railroads 11 

Roads  and  Highways 12 

Civil  Service  System 13 

Reorganization  of  the  Administration 13 

Changes  in  Local  Government 16 

Improvements  to  the  City  of  Manila 19 

Political  Difficulties  and  Disorders 20 

The  Pulahan 22 

Visit  of  Secretary  Tafi*  and  Party 23 

Administration  of  Governor-General  Ide 24 

Reform  of  Currency 26 

Opium  Legislation 26 

Standard  Weights  and  Measures 27 

Postal  Savings 27 

Surrender  of  the  Cabecillas 28 

Filipino  Parties 29 

Elections  of  1905  and  1906 32 

Organization  of  New  Parties 33 

Inauguration  of  Governor-General  Smith 35 

The  Philippine  Assembly 36 

The  Philippine  Census 39 

Qualifications  of  Electors 40 

The  First  Session  of  the  Assembly 41 


Vi  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

The  Second  Session  of  the  Assembly 44 

Changes  in  the  Commission 45 

Administration  of  Governor-General  Forbes        46 

Congressional  Investigation  of  the  Friar  Lands 47 

Agricultural  Prosperity 49 

Dajiage  from  Typhoons 50 

The  Taal  Disaster 51 

Visit  of  Secretary  Dickinson 52 

The  Non-Christian  Peoples 52 

The  Moros 54 

Summary  and  Retrospect 59 

Public  Instruction 60 

Public  Health 61 

The  Bureau  of  Science  and  The  University 62 

Filipino  Aspirations 62 

The  Democratic  Administration 63 

Inauguration  of  Governor-General  Harrison 63 


PROLOGUE. 


The  possession  of  the  Philippines  came  suddenly  and 
unexpectedly  to  the  American  people.  A  succession  of 
events  which  were  not  anticipated,  but  which  could  not 
properly  be  avoided,  bound  the  islands  to  us.  In  Apiil 
1898,  war  was  commenced  to  end  Spanish  domination  in 
Cuba,  but  the  first  blow  was  struck  in  the  Far  East.  For 
a  long  period  the  United  States  had  kept  a  small  squadron 
in  Asiatic  waters,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  war,  no 
American  naval  base  then  existing,  it  was  gathered  at 
Hongkong.  The  British  government,  complying  with  its 
duty  as  a  neutral,  ordered  the  American  ships  to  depart. 
Three  possible  directions  were  open  to  the  Navy  Depart- 
ment :  "  interne  "  at  Hongkong  and  remain  under  British 
control  for  the  period  of  the  war ;  return  to  the  United 
States,  passing  from  port  to  port  for  those  limited  supplies 
of  fuel  which  international  regulations  permit ;  or  take  a 
base  from  the  enemy.  This  last  course  was  adopted,  and 
on  May  1,  Commodore  Dewey  entered  the  harbor  of  Ma- 
nila, destroyed  the  Spanish  fleet,  and  captured  the  naval 
station  at  Cavite. 

All  sound  principles  of  warfare  recommend  that  a  suc- 
cessful blow  be  followed  up  and  efforts  repeated  to  demor- 
alize the  enemy  and  compel  him  to  sue  for  peace.  Thus 
the  battle  of  Manila  Bay  was  succeeded  by  the  dispatch  of 
a  military  expedition  to  the  Philippines,  the  encourage- 


Vll 


viii  PROLOGUE. 

ment  of  the  Filipinos  to  renew  their  rebellion  against 
Spain,  and  the  capture  of  Manila,  which  yielded  to  an 
American  assault  on  August  13.  Before  this  final  action, 
however,  on  July  22,  Spain  had  sued  for  peace ;  and  on 
August  12  a  protocol  had  been  signed  in  which  Spain 
yielded  the  primary  objects  of  the  war,  and  a  suspension  of 
hostilities  was  declared.  Owing  to  the  cutting  of  the 
cable  between  Manila  and  Hongkong,  news  of  this  pro- 
tocol did  not  reach  the  Philippines  to  stay  the  assault, 
and,  like  the  battle  of  New  Orleans,  the  taking  of  Manila 
occurred  after  the  formal  ending  of  war. 

The  capture  and  occupation  of  the  capital  of  the  Philip- 
pines exerted  important  influences  upon  the  final  terms  of 
peace.  The  protocol  of  August  12  had  provided  that 
Spain  should  relinquish  Cuba,  cede  Porto  Rico  and  an 
island  of  the  Ladrones,  and  that  commissioners  should  be 
appointed  to  meet  at  Paris  for  the  final  settlement  of  the 
terms  of  peace.  The  disposition  of  the  Philippines  was 
left  to  this  commission.  1 

After  the  meeting  of  the  peace  commissioners,  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  United  States  determined  to  compel  the 
cession  of  the  Philippines.  The  Spanish  commissioners 
yielded  after  a  bitter  and  protracted  dispute,  and  the 
treaty  was  signed  on  December  10.  The  motives  of  the 
American  government  in  thus  extending  its  demands  have 
been  denounced  repeatedly  as  lust  of  empire,  cupidity,  or 
the  intoxication  of  military  success.  These  charges  by  no 
means  explain  the  situation.  The  dominant  motive  quite 
clearly  was  to  protect  the  islands  from  further  bloodshed 
and  turmoil.     Aguinaldo  and  the  Filipinos  had  had  the 

1  Treaty  of  Peace  between  the  United  States  and  Spain,  Sen.  Doc. 
No.  62,  part  I,  65th  Congress,  3rd  session,  p.  274,  277. 


PROLOGUE.  IX 

encouragement  of  the  American  forces  against  Spain  and 
they  had  co-operated  in  some  degree  in  the  taking  of  Ma- 
nila. The  American  commanders  had  employed  only  legit- 
imate means  of  warfare  in  encouraging  the  rebellion  of  the 
enemy's  subjects,  but  this  very  encouragement  had  created 
a  responsibility  to  protect  the  Filipinos  from  the  conse- 
quences of  their  temerity  in  rising  once  more  against  Spain. 
The  termination  of  the  war  released  for  action  in  the  Phil- 
ippines the  Spanish  forces  employed  in  Cuba,  and  had  the 
Filipinos  been  left  to  settle  their  cause  alone,  Spain  would 
have  swept  the  islands  once  more  with  a  besom  of  destruc- 
tion. These  considerations  were,  I  believe,  the  dominant 
motives  with  the  American  government  and  people.  Ac- 
quisition seemed  to  be  unavoidable  except  by  a  repudiation 
of  clearly  existing  responsibility.  The  United  States 
Senate,  however,  debated  the  ratification  of  this  treaty  for 
many  days,  and  final  approval  was  not  given  until  Febru- 
ary 10,  1899,  after  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  between  the 
Filipinos  and  Americans. 

The  period  from  the  capture  of  Manila  to  the  4th  of 
February  was  a  most  critical  one  in  the  Philippines,  and 
it  is  impossible  to  study  its  course  without  regrets. 
While  the  discussion  of  the  treaty  dragged  on  at  Paiis, 
while  the  American  people  strove  to  discover  what  was 
demanded  by  their  interests  or  their  duty,  the  Filipinos 
rapidly  extended  their  operations  against  the  Spanish, 
awoke  quite  generally  to  aspirations  of  independence,  and 
organized  for  administration  and  for  war.  The  Filipino 
revolutionary  leader,  General  Emilio  Aguinaldo,  had  in 
May  returned  to  Manila  with  the  aid  of  American  officers 
and  raised  again  the  standard  of  revolt  against  Spain. 
At  Cavite  on  June  18  he  proclaimed  a  "Dictatorial  Gov- 


X  PROLOGUE. 

ernnient "  with  local  ordinances.  On  June  23  he  issued 
anotlier  decree  substituting  a  "  Revolutionary  Government" 
with  an  organized  plan  for  an  executive  department  and 
provision  for  a  revolutionary  congress  to  be  popularly 
elected.  During  this  period  he  had  been  joined  by  Apoli- 
nario  Mabini,  who  is  generally  regarded  as  the  most  able 
exponent  of  the  Filipino  national  movement  and  who  from 
this  time  on  was  a  most  active  supporter  of  Philippine 
independence.  About  the  end  of  July  Aguinaldo  was 
asked  by  the  American  authorities  to  evacuate  Cavite. 
Me  accordingly  transferred  his  headquarters  to  Bakoor 
and  afterwards,  about  September  1,  to  Malolos,  forty  miles 
north  of  Manila  in  Bulakan.  Here  was  held  the  famous 
Filipino  congress  which  proclaimed  the  "  Malolos  Consti- 
tution "  (January  23,  1899).  Shortly  thereafter  fighting 
began  between  the  American  army  in  Manila  and  the 
Filipino  troops  who  had  encircled  the  city,  and  the  rev- 
olutionary government  broke  up  in  disagreement,  many 
members  seeking  the  American  lines  and  throwing  their 
influence  on  the  side  of  the  Americans,  while  the  "  irrec- 
oncilables  "  continued  to  wage  a  disastrous  resistance. 

The  history  of  this  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  F'ilipinos 
to  organize  a  government,  frame  a  constitution,  and  legis- 
late for  the  improvement  of  their  social  interests  is  a  sub- 
ject of  great  interest  which  has  not  been  adequately  or 
impartially  described.  The  opponents  of  the  American 
action  have  claimed  that  a  genuine  republic  was  suppressed 
and  a  native  movement  of  promise  extinguished.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  Malolos  Congress  never  represented  more 
than  a  mere  fraction  of  the  people  of  the  single  island  of 
Luzon  and  was  largely  composed  of  men  of  Tagalog  birth. 
The  system  of  local  government,  which  previous  to  the 


PROLOGUE.  Xi 

commencement  of  hostilities  appeared  in  some  places  to  be 
moving  quietly  and  successfully,  undoubtedly  soon  began 
to  exhibit  those  unfortunate  tendencies  which  transformed 
it  into  a  system  of  terrorism  enforced  by  assassination. ^ 
This  is  not  the  place  to  give  an  account  of  the  Philippina 
Insurrection.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  after  the  first  fighting 
around  Manila  on  February  5,  the  American  army  pushed 
northward  and  captured  Malolos  on  March  31.  The  Fili- 
pino forces  retired  northward  beyond  the  Rio  Grande  de 
Pampanga,  with  headquarters  at  Tarlak.  After  the  sum- 
mer rainy  season,  operations  were  resumed  by  the  Amer- 
icans which  led  in  November  to  the  complete  disbandment 
of  the  Filipino  army.  Aguinaldo  escaped  into  the  moun- 
tainous country  of  northern  Luzon  and  disappeared  from 
view  until  his  capture  at  Palanan  by  General  Funston  in 
May,  1901.  The  American  army  gradually  occupied  all 
portions  of  the  Archipelago  inhabited  by  civilized  peoples. 
The  Philippine  resistance  took  the  form  of  a  secret  mili- 
tary organization  existent  in  practically  all  towns.  Inces- 
sant attacks  were  made  upon  American  troops  and  the 
population  was  prevented  from  submission  by  a  policy  of 


1  The  First  Annual  Report  of  General  Otis  gives  the  American  view. 
Some  light  is  afforded  by  testimony  before  the  American  Peace  Commis- 
sioners at  Paris.  The  proclamations  of  Aguinaldo  are  available  in  several 
published  forms.  While  an  exile  on  Guam,  Mabini  wrote  a  history  of 
the  revolution,  only  a  pai't  of  which  has  been  printed.  This  was  pub- 
lished in  English  translation  by  Mr.  James  B.  Le  Roy  in  the  American 
Historical  Review.  The  Insurgent  War  Records,  edited  by  Captain 
Taylor,  can  probably  now  be  consulted  through  the  courtesy  of  the 
War  Department,  A  valuable  narrative  with  critical  notes  is  Felipe 
Calderon's  La  Hevolucidn  Filipina.  Calderon  gives  a  detailed  account  of 
the  Malolos  Congress,  of  which  he  was  a  member.  The  Malolos  Consti- 
tution is  printed  in  Eept.  Phil.  Com.,  1900  (vol.  I,  exhibit  IV),  and  in 
Sen.  Doc.  208  (part  I,  p.  207  ). 


XU  PROLOGUE. 

terrorism.  This  condition  lasted  for  many  months  and 
was  exceedingly  discouraging  to  the  American  command- 
ers. It  was  found  necessary  to  garrison  all  parts  of  the 
the  Archipelago,  and  in  the  fall  of  1900  the  United  States 
had  in  the  Philippines  an  army  of  75,000  effective  troops 
divided  into  more  than  550  separate  detachments.  There 
was  an  average  of  three  engagements  a  day. 

Meanwhile  Congress  took  no  definite  action  with  respect 
to  the  future  of  American  sovereignty  in  the  islands. 
The  definite  will  of  the  American  people  could  not  be  de- 
termined before  the  election  of  President  McKinley  in  Nov- 
ember, 1900.  To  supplement  the  efforts  of  the  army  in 
winning  the  natives  to  a  recognition  of  American  rule  and 
to  reorganize  the  political  institutions  of  the  islands.  Pres- 
ident McKinley  in  April,  1900,  appointed  the  Philip- 
pine Commission.!  The  work  of  this  memorable  Com- 
mission will  stand  as  one  of  the  most  striking  events  in 
American  history.  It  was  ably  constituted.  Its  Presi- 
dent was  Judge  William  H.  Taft  of  Ohio.  The  other 
members  were  Professor  Dean  C.  Worcester,  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan,  Honorable  Luke  E.  Wright  of  Ten- 
nessee, Honorable  Henry  C.  Ide  of  Vermont,  Professor 
Bernard  Moses  of  the  University  of  California.  Mr. 
Wright  had  been  Attorney-General  of  Tennessee;  Mr.  Ide, 
Judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Samoa  under  the  tripartite 
protectorate  of  the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  and  Ger- 
many ;  Professor  Worcester  had  three  times  previously  vis- 


1  This  Commission  is  to  be  distinguished  from  a  previous  commission 
headed  by  President  Schurman  of  Cornell,  which  was  sent  to  the  Philip- 
pines in  1899  to  secure  information  as  to  the  actual  conditions.  The  re- 
port of  the  Schurman  Commission  is  published  in  four  volumes,  Wash- 
ington, 1900. 


PROLOGUE.  xiii 

ited  the  islands,  twice  as  a  naturalist  and  once  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Schurraan  Commission  ;  Professor  Moses  had  for 
many  years  been  a  student  of  Spanish  colonial  liistory  and 
institutions.  Tiie  Coininission  reached  Manila  in  June, 
1900,  and  commenced  its  legislative  labors  September  1. 
Its  work  in  this  capacity  was  remarkable.  Between  the  first 
of  September  1900  and  August  1902,  it  enacted  419  laws, 
organizing  with  considerable  completeness  an  entire  form 
of  government  composed  of  insular  bureaus  and  provin- 
cial and  municipal  administrations.  In  much  of  this  work 
the  way  had  already  been  opened  by  the  efforts  of  the 
Army  and  the  general  orders  of  the  military  commander. 
The  revenues,  deiived  mainly  from  customs,  were  from  the 
beginning  of  the  Commission's  efforts  adequate  for  all 
civil  expenditures  in  the  Archipelago.  On  July  4,  1901, 
Judge  Taft  was  inaugurated  Civil  Governor  and  the  exec- 
utive power,  which  up  to  this  time  had  been  exercised 
through  the  military  commander,  was  organized  as  a  civil 
administration.  The  positive  evidences  of  the  liberal 
American  policy  in  the  Philippines  which  the  work  of  the 
Commission  was  able  to  offer,  together  with  the  active  op- 
erations of  the  American  army,  brought  an  end  to  the 
Philippine  Insurrection  in  the  spring  and  summer  of  1901, 
when  the  Filipino  "zone  commanders,"  who  for  many 
months  had  been  exercising  practically  independent  author- 
ity in  the  different  provinces  of  the  Archipelago,  were  cap- 
tured or  forced  to  surrender.  They  were  all  promptly 
paroled  and  allowed  to  return  to  their  homes.  Not  one 
of  these  revol  utionary  leaders  ever  broke  his  parole  or  took 
up  arms  against  the  United  States. 

The  work  of  pacification  and  organization  of  govern- 
ment in  the  Philippines  was  accomplished  under  the  au- 


xiv  PROLOGUE. 

thority  of  the  President  of  the  United  States.  It  was  an 
extension  of  the  war  and  treaty  making  powers.  Congress, 
after  a  long  and  detailed  examination  and  debate  of  the 
Philippine  situation,  on  July  1,  1902,  validated  the  acts  of 
the  President  and  the  Philippine  Commission  and  passed  a 
general  measure  for  the  government  of  the  islands  and  the 
establishment  of  civil  rights.  This  "  Philippine  Bill "  is 
the  legislative  basis  of  the  American  government  in  the 
islands.^ 


1  Material  for  the  study  of  the  American  occupation  of  the  islands  is 
to  be  obtained  from  the  reports  of  the  Philippine  Commission,  1900  to 
1913.  From  1901  to  1908  these  reports  were  issued  annually  in  several 
volumes,  and  beside  the  reports  of  the  Commission  and  the  secretaries 
of  the  executive  departments,  contain  complete  reports  of  the  bureaus. 
Since  1909  the  report  is  issued  in  a  single  volume  and  the  bureau  reports 
are  published  separately.  The  reports  of  the  Military  Governors  of  the 
Philippines  for  1899  to  1901  give  the  work  of  the  Army.  Valuable  tes- 
timony of  Governor  Taf  t,  other  Philippine  officials,  and  army  officers  be- 
fore the  Senate  Committee  in  the  spring  of  1902  is  published  as  a  Senate 
Document.  The  laws  of  the  Commission  were  published  as  they  ap- 
peared and  have  been  republished  in  six  octavo  volumes,  Acts  1  to  1800, 
September,  1900  to  October,  1907. 


A   DECADE   OF   AMERICAN   GOVERNMENT 
1903-1913 

No  one  can  review  the  achievements  of  the  past  decade 
in  the  Philippines  without  granting  it  to  be  a  signal  tri- 
umph over  unusual  difficulties  and  misunderstandings. 
This  is  a  brief  period  as  measured  by  the  usual  progress  of 
society,  but  in  colonial  administration  it  has  frequently 
happened  that  great  changes  have  not  waited  upon  long 
lapse  of  time.  Caesar  was  in  Gaul  only  eight  years ; 
Olive's  famous  Indian  governorship  lasted  less  than  six ; 
Raffles  was  in  Java  only  five.  A  decade  of  co-operative 
effort  between  Americans  and  Filipinos  has  changed  the 
future  of  the  Archipelago.  Difficult  as  the  task  is  by 
reason  of  its  proximity  to  us,  it  is  the  intention  here  to 
summarize  the  historical  events  of  this  decade. 

Policy  of  The  United  States.  —  Throughout  the  decade 
the  Republican  Party  was  in  power  in  the  United  States, 
and  the  policy  originally  outlined  by  President  Mclvinley, 
and  developed  by  Mr.  Root  and  Mr.  Taft,  continued  to  be 
the  guiding  principle  of  Americans  in  administering  the 
government  of  the  islands.  This  policy,  first  laid  down 
in  the  President's  Instructions  to  the  Taft  Philippine 
Commission,  while  fully  accepting  and  insisting  upon 
American  responsibility  for  the  Archipelago,  was  a  policy 
of  conciliation  and  generous  concession.     It  contemplated 


2  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

the  largest  possible  participation  of  Filipinos  in  legisla- 
tion and  administration  and  an  increasing  measure  of  au- 
tonomy as  enlightenment  and  experience  advanced ;  the 
conservation  of  the  natural  resources  and  the  public  do- 
main ;  the  education  of  the  masses,  and  the  training  of 
Filipinos  for  leadership.  Assailed  at  first  by  opponents 
from  both  quarters,  this  policy  finally  gained  general 
recognition  among  Americans  and  Filipinos. 

Although  the  Republican  Party  controlled  the  adminis- 
tration, the  Philippine  question  was  not  regarded  or  treated 
as  a  partisan  matter.  Of  the  four  governors-general  who 
succeeded  Mr.  Taft,  Mr.  Ide  was  a  Republican,  Mr. 
Wright  and  Mr.  Smith  were  Democrats,  and  Mr.  Forbes 
had  never  been  prominently  identified  with  either  party. 
Appointments  to  the  Philippine  service,  with  a  few  excep- 
tions, were  made  without  reference  to  political  affiliations 
in  the  United  States. 

Achievements  of  Governor  Taft.  —  Mr.  Taft  left  Manila 
in  December,  1903,  to  become  Secretary  of  War  in  Pres- 
ident Roosevelt's  Cabinet.  He  left  the  Philippines  with 
unconcealed  reluctance,  having  previously  in  the  year  de- 
clined the  coveted  position  of  associate  justice  of  the  Su- 
preme Court  of  the  United  States  in  order  to  continue  at 
the  head  of  Philippine  affairs.  His  governorship  had  been 
one  beset  with  immense  difficulties.  Active  revolution 
ended  in  the  spring  of  1901  with  the  surrender  and  parole 
of  all  but  a  few  of  the  revolutionary  zone  commanders  and 
with  the  capture  of  General  Aguinaldo;  but  guerrilla  war- 
fare continued,  in  Batangas  under  General  Malvar  until 
June,  1902,  in  Samar  under  General  Lukbp.n  until  Febru- 
ary, 1902,  and  in  Bohol  and  Cebu  for  some  months  after 
Mr.  Taft's  inauguration.     July  4,  1902,  saw  all  of  these 


A   DECADE   OF  AMERICAN  GOVERNMENT.  3 

provinces  organized  under  the  general  provincial  govern- 
ment plan.i 

Ladronism.  —  In  several  provinces,  including  the  vicinity 
of  Manila,  numerous  subordinate  chieftains  refused  to  fol- 
low their  leaders  in  submission  and,  falling  back  into  the 
old  life  of  "  tulisanes  "  or  "  ladrones,"  kept  up  a  period  of 
raid  and  pillage  which  was  not  ended  until  1906.  This 
persistence  of  "  ladronism  "  was  perhaps  the  most  discour- 
aging problem  that  faced  the  new  and  untried  civil  gover- 
ment.  Parts  of  the  Philippines  had  not  been  free  from 
tulisanes  for  many  decades.  Among  the  common  people 
they  enjoyed  a  kind  of  popularity,  while  their  habitual 
acts  of  cruelty  and  retaliation  terrorized  the  barrio  popula- 
tion. Landowners,  failing  of  public  security  for  their 
crops  and  carabaos,  had  for  years  followed  the  practice  of 
paying  for  protection,  thus  implicating  themselves  in 
keeping  ladronism  alive.  To  meet  this  situation  the  Com- 
mission in  November,  1902,  added  to  the  Penal  Code  an 
act  creating  and  defining  the  crime  of  brigandage  or  "  ban- 
dolerismo."  Membership  or  participation  in  any  armed 
band  of  robbers  engaged  in  robbery,  carabao  stealing,  or 
roaming  the  country  with  deadly  weapons,  was  punishable 
by  death  or  imprisonment  for  not  less  than  twenty  years. 
The  activities  of  the  constabulary  led  to  the  arrest  of  thou- 
sands of  offenders  charged  under  this  act.  The  courts 
were  overwhelmed  with  the  duty  of  their  trial  and  men 
were  frequently  convicted  in  companies.  The  barbarities 
practised  by  the  ladrones,  the  fact  that  they  delayed  all 
progress  and  occasioned  untold  misery,  warranted  the 
severest  measures ;  but  it  was  impossible  to  do  individual 

1  Act  85. 


4  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

justice,  and  men  suffered  punishment  who  were  rather  the 
victims  of  misfortune  than  deliberate  criminals.  Jails 
were  overcrowded  and  the  hygiene  of  the  thousands  of 
prisoners  suffered.  The  evil  could  only  be  reached  by 
substantial  co-operation  between  the  goverment  and  the 
barrio  people,  upon  whom  fell  both  the  depredations  of 
ladrones  and  the  punitive  measures  of  the  police,  and  in 
the  state  of  misunderstanding  and  inexperience  which 
existed  there  was  at  first  no  accord.  It  would  be  impos- 
sible within  the  limits  of  this  chapter  to  give  an  idea  of 
the  extent  and  injuiy  of  ladronism.  No  less  than  half  the 
provinces  were  seriously  affected  during  the  years  1902- 
06,  and  bands  more  or  less  formidable  appeared  in  practi- 
cally all.  On  June  1,  1903,  the  Commission,  by  Act  781, 
authorized  the  Governor-General  to  place  municipal  police 
under  the  orders  of  the  constabulary,  to  grant  immunity 
from  arrest  by  ordinary  police  to  officers  or  members  of 
the  constabulary,  and,  upon  resolution  of  the  Commission, 
to  "  reconcentrate  "  the  barrio  population  in  town  centers 
where  the  district  was  infested  with  ladrones  and  where 
protection  could  not  be  afforded  to  the  people  nor  could  they 
be  prevented  from  supplying  the  ladrones  with  food  and 
resources.  This  policy  was  practised  in  Albay  to  secure 
the  bandit  Ola  and  later  in  Cavite,  without  effect,  against 
Sakay  and  Felizardo. 

Another  measure,  the  "  Vagrancy  Act,"  was  directed  not 
at  Filipino  outlaws  but  at  abandoned  and  dissolute  Ameri- 
cans, both  white  and  colored,  who  were  a  disturbing 
element  in  many  towns.  On  conviction  they  were  de- 
ported from  the  islands,  i 

1  Act  519. 


A   DECADE   OF  AMERICAN   GOVERNMENT.  6 

Epidemics.  —  But  lawlessness  was  not  the  sole  affliction 
of  this  trying  period.  Pestilence  and  famine  descended 
upon  the  country.  The  sanitary  service  first  organized  in 
Manila  by  the  American  army  achieved  a  triumph  in  1903 
in  the  extirpation  of  bubonic  plague.  But  smallpox,  until 
controlled  by  a  resumption  of  general  vaccination,  swept 
many  parts  of  the  islands  for  a  number  of  years.  And  in 
March,  1902,  appeared  a  terrible  visitation  of  cholera. 
The  disease  had  not  been  officially  recognized  in  the 
islands  since  the  epidemic  of  1888-9,  although  it  may 
have  been  endemic  during  the  entire  period.^  In  Manila 
the  epidemic  lasted  until  the  end  of  February,  1904,  and 
killed  4386  victims.  In  the  provinces,  owing  to  the  inef- 
ficiency of  sanitary  measures,  the  absence  of  medical  help, 
and  the  inexperience  of  officials  in  combatting  epidem- 
ics, it  swept  unhindered  until  it  had  devastated  all  the 
Archipelago  expect  the  mountainous  region  of  Lepanto- 
Bontok  and  the  islands  of  Palawan  and  Batanes.  There 
are  no  trustworthy  figures  as  to  the  sick  and  dead.  The 
official  reports  seem  excessively  low  to  one  who  saw  the  dis- 
ease in  several  provinces.  The  census  figures,  which  ac- 
count for  over  200,000  deaths,  are  probal)ly  still  under  the 
truth.  The  cholera,  introduced  into  island  after  island  by 
the  visits  of  infected  ships  and  native  boats,  spread  from 
town  to  town  at  about  the  rate  of  a  walking  man.  No  rem- 
edial measures  were  known  or  tried.  General  sanitation, 
removal  of  filth,  precautions  in  cooking  and  care  of  food, 
were  advocated,  but  in  many  localities  the  disease  raged 
until  it  seemed  that  only  the  immune  were  spared.  There 
was  no   panic.     The    natives    took    it   with    tragic    sub- 


1  This  is  apparently  the  opinion  of    Professor  Worcester.     See  his 
History  of  Asiatic  Cholera  in  the  Philippine  Islands,  Manila,  1908. 


6  THE   PHILIPPINES. 

mission.  Processions  in  honor  of  San  Roque  and  other 
ceremonies  were  practised,  but  the  population  was  beyond 
the  influence  of  such  expert  advice  as  was  offered. 
American  officials  in  the  provinces,  teachers,  and  scout 
and  constabulary  officers,  with  very  few  exceptions,  stood 
to  their  tasks  with  heroic  fidelity.  Not  a  few  fell  victims. 
For  months  the  normal  industrial  life,  the  work  of  tlie 
schools,  and  the  operation  of  the  newly  established  local 
goverments  were  demoralized. ^ 

Disease  assailed  the  animals  as  well.  Surra  killed  most 
of  the  horses  in  the  islands  and  a  still  more  serious  calam- 
ity, the  rinderpest,  destroyed  the  cattle  and  carabaos  indis- 
pensable to  rice  cultivation.     Agriculture  was  paralyzed. 

Agricultural  Distress  and  Economic  Crisis.  —  The  eco- 
nomic crisis  was  serious.  For  years  the  islands  had  not 
raised  their  own  food  in  adequate  amounts.  The  develop- 
ment of  the  culture  of  tobacco,  hemp,  copra,  and  sugar 
had  lessened  the  rice  cultivation,  and  Saigon  and  Burma 
had  supplied  the  deficiency.  In  1903  the  importations  of 
rice  reached  20,000,000  pesos ;  in  1904  they  rose  further 
to  23,097,628  pesos.  The  army,  which  had  kept  a  great 
deal  of  money  in  circulation,  had  been  much  reduced  and 
this  economic  support  was  gone.  By  the  summer  of  1902 
in  many  parts  of  the  islands  there  was  suffering  for  lack  of 
food.  The  price  of  rice  was  rising  rapidly  in  Manila  and 
there  was  evidence  that  a  combination  had  been  formed 
among  importei-s  to  control  its  price.  Under  these  circum- 
stances the  Commission,  by  Act  No.  495,  appropriated 
2,000,000  pesos  to  buy  and  distribute  rice  to  needy  dis- 
tricts, selling  it  at  reasonable  prices.     The  tmnsaction  oc- 


1  Census  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  vol.  Ill,  p.  47. 


A   DECADE   OF  AMERICAN  GOVERNMENT.  7 

casioned  a  loss  to  the  government  of  $100,000,  but  it 
broke  the  corner. 

Drought  of  unusual  length  continued  through  many 
months  of  1903  and  locusts  invaded  nearly  every  province. 
The  earliest  records  of  Spanish  occupation  rehearse  the 
losses  through  the  armies  of  these  winged  invaders,  and 
beginning  \vith  an  early  date,  ordinances  of  Philippine  gov- 
ernors had  authorized  the  general  levy  of  the  population 
to  destroy  the  young  of  the  locusts.  This  practice  was 
authorized  by  new  legislation  and  an  appropriation  made 
to  aid  the  provinces  in  their  efforts  at  extermination.  The 
introduction  of  a  fungus  fatal  to  locusts  was  tried  also, 
but  without  results.  The  relief  fund  of  f 3,000,000  voted 
by  Congress,  the  only  appropriation  ever  made  by  the 
United  States  government  for  the  aid  of  the  islands,  was 
used  to  supply  food  to  populations  engaged  in  fighting  lo- 
custs as  well  as  for  building  roads  and  constructing  school- 
houses.  Efforts  were  also  made  to  restock  the  islands 
out  of  this  fund  with  carabaos  from  China  and  the  Malay 
states. 

The  economic  distress  was  further  aggravated  by  the  de- 
preciation of  silver,  which  impaired  the  purchasing  power 
of  the  Mexican  money  in  general  circulation,  by  the  ab- 
sence of  markets  for  such  exports  as  tobacco  and  sugar, 
and  by  the  unfamiliar  character  of  the  local  taxation. 

The  prestige  and  success  of  the  new  government  were 
greatly  damaged  by  a  number  of  defalcations  of  disbursing 
and  property  officers.  The  system  of  audit  was  inadequate, 
untried  men  had  been  entrusted  with  responsibilities  be- 
yond their  ability  or  integrity,  the  number  of  officers  at 
first  charged  with  the  receipt  and  disbursement  of  funds 
was    unnecessarily  large,  and  numerous  irregularities  oc- 


8  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

cuired.  The  offenders  were  swiftly  prosecuted  and  un- 
sparingly punished,  but  their  behavior  was  a  great  morti 
fieation  to  the  Commission  and  to  the  community.^ 

These  are  some  of  the  difficulties  under  which  the  ad- 
ministration of  Governor  Taf  t  labored.  That  progress  was 
made  is  eloquent  tribute  to  him  and  his  associates.  Busi- 
ness was  suffering  from  the  loss  of  army  trade,  from  cur- 
rency disorder,  and  from  failure  of  products,  but  the  finan- 
ces of  the  Government  were  kept  solvent.  Public  order 
suffered  from  ladrones  and  from  constabulary  operations, 
but  gradually  friendships  were  established  between  Ameri- 
cans and  Filipinos  and  co-operation  was  attained.  The 
schools,  in  spite  of  delays  of  organization  and  the  lack  of 
means  of  conniiunication,  made  progress  and  were  attended 
in  1902-3  by  about  150,000  pupils. 

The  personality  of  Governor  Taft  went  far  to  reassure 
Filipinos  and  conquer  their  distrust  and  antipathy,  but 
the  American  business  community  did  not  sympathize 
with  his  policy  of  "  the  Philippines  for  the  Filipinos."  He 
was  continually  embarrassed  by  the  lack  of  support  from 
men  who  preferred  the  military  regime,  who  clamored  for 
a  free  hand  in  appropriating  the  natural  wealth  of  the  is- 
lands and  for  legislation  favoring  exploitation.  One  of 
Mr.  Taft's  last  services  was  the  delivery  of  an  address  in 
Manila  on  the  eve  of  his  departure  entitled,  "  The  Duty 
of  Americans  in  the  Philippines."  This  was  perhaps  the 
fullest  and  ablest  defense  of  the  American  policy  in  the 
Philippines  ever  made,^ 

Settlement  with  the  Catholic  Church.  —  Mr.  Taft  had  la- 
bored to  complete  one  other  task.     This  was  the  purchase 


1  Report,  1903,  vol.  I,  p.  70. 

2  Officicd  Gazette,  vol.  I,  p.  68. 


A   DECADE   OF  AMERICAN  GOVERNMENT.  9 

of  the  "  Friar  Lands."  These  lands,  the  possession  of  the 
Augustinian,  Franciscan,  Dominican,  and  Recollect  ordere, 
amounted  to  about  425,000  acres,  275,000  acres  being  in 
the  vicinity  of  Manila.  Some  had  belonged  to  the  orders 
for  centuries,  but  the  Augustinian  estate  in  the  Kagayan 
valley  had  been  granted  to  that  order  in  1880  and  the  San 
Jose  estate  in  Mindoro  had  been  granted  to  the  Recollects 
in  1894.  Filipino  feeling  against  the  clerical  ownership 
of  these  properties  was  intense.  After  1896  it  had  never 
been  possible  to  collect  rentals  from  the  tenants.  The 
Malolos  Convention  which  adopted  the  constitution  of  the 
Filipino  Republic  had  decreed  the  secularization  of  these 
lands.  The  Schurman  Commission  had  recommended 
their  purchase  by  the  government,  their  subdivision  and 
sale  to  tenants.  The  Philippine  Commission  adopted  this 
plan.  It  was  urged  by  Mr.  Taft  in  Washington  in  the 
spring  of  1902,  and  sanctioned  by  Congress  in  the  Act  of 
July  1.  On  his  way  back  to  the  Philippines  in  1902,  Mr. 
Taft  went  to  Rome,  hoping  by  direct  application  to  the 
Pope  to  secure  a  contract  for  the  purchase  of  the  estates 
and  the  entire  withdrawal  of  the  friars  from  the  islands. 
This  effort  was  unsuccessful,  but  a  new  Apostolic  Dele- 
gate, Monsignor  Guidi,  was  appointed  to  the  Philippines, 
and  after  long  negotiations  it  was  agreed  in  December, 
1903,  that  the  friar  lands  should  be  purchased  by  the 
Philippines  government  for  87,237,000.  Subsequently 
other  disputes  involving  the  ownership  of  property,  in- 
cluding the  San  Jose  College,  were  settled  or  compromised 
in  a  manner  generous  to  the  church,  and  the  difficult 
questions  involved  in  the  separation  of  government  and 
church  were  met  without  inheritance  of  ill  feeling.  Fur- 
thermore, by  Act  of  March  26, 1908,  Congress  appropriated 


10  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

$403,030.19  for  the  benefit  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
to  settle  its  claims  for  damages  to  church  property  during 
the  Spanish  War  and  the  Insurrection,  i 

Meanwhile  the  religious  predominance  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  in  the  Philippines  had  been  menaced  by 
a  remarkable  secession  which  found  its  strength  in  hostil- 
ity to  the  continued  service  of  the  friars  as  cumtes  of  the 
parishes.  This  schism  was  led  by  a  Filipino  priest,  Gre- 
gorio  Aglipay,  who  proclaimed  himself  Pontifex  Maximus 
of  the  Independent  Catholic  Church  of  the  Philippines. 
Hundreds  of  towns  fell  in  with  this  movement,  and  their 
churches  were  turned  over  by  the  people  to  the  Aglipay 
leaders.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church  authorities  de- 
manded of  the  government  that  the  churches  be  restored 
to  their  bishops  by  armed  interference  of  the  constabulary, 
but  the  government  maintained  a  neutral  attitude  and  re- 
quired the  matter  to  take  its  way  in  the  courts.  Deci- 
sions of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  Philippines  eventually 
gave  the  title  of  all  these  churches  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
bishops. 

Administration  of  Governor-General  Wright.  —  Following 
Mr.  Taft's  departure,  Mr.  Luke  E.  Wright  was  inaugu- 
rated on  February  1,  1904.2  jjj  j^^g  inaugural  address  Mr. 
Wright  dwelt  upon  the  need  of  industrial  development 
and  of  transportation,  especially  railroads,  and  urged  that 


1  See  Report  War  Dept.  1900, 1,  part  4,  pp.  502-8;  Report  Phil.  Com. 
1902,  pp.  22-33;  lb.  1903,  Exhibits  F. G.H.I. ;  lb.  1904,  Exhibit  I.;  Cor- 
respondence between  the  Holy  See  and  Hon.  Wm.  H.  Taft,  Manila, 
1902.  Sen.  Doc.  190,  56th  Cong.  2nd  sess.;  Special  Report  of  Secretary 
Taft,  Washington,  1908. 

2  Congress  by  Act  of  Feb.  6,  1905,  the  "  Cooper  Act,"  changed  the 
designation  of  the  chief  executive  of  the  Philippines  from  Civil  Governor 
to  that  of  Grovemor-General. 


A   DECADE   OF  AMERICAN  GOVERNMENT.  11 

encouragement  and  friendliness  be  shown  to  all  who  de- 
sired to  enter  the  islands  for  their  legitimate  development 
The  policy,  he  said,  should  be  one  of  "  equal  opportunities 
to  all." 

Economic  Policy.  —  This  announcement  was  welcomed 
by  Americans  who  had  opposed  Mr.  Taft,  as  indicating  more 
favorable  concessions  to  business  and  foreign  capital,  while 
Filipinos  were  to  some  degree  disturbed.  It  was  apparent 
that  Mr.  Wright's  sympathies  inclined  more  toward  meas- 
ures for  industrial  development  than  to  the  political  train- 
ing of  the  Filipinos  or  to  public  instruction  of  the  child. 
As  Secretary  of  Commerce  and  Police  he  had  already  given 
extensive  study  to  the  question  of  increasing  railroad  fa- 
cilities in  the  islands,  and  the  most  important  achievement 
of  his  administration  was  the  interesting  of  American  cap- 
ital in  railroad  building.  President  Roosevelt  appointed  to 
the  Commission  to  succeed  Mr.  Wright  as  Secretary  of 
Commerce  and  Police,  Mr.  W.  Cameron  Forbes  of  Mass- 
achusetts, then  a  young  man  of  thirty-four,  who  had  had 
successful  experience  in  financial  reorganization  of  electric 
roads  and  similar  business  in  the  United  States. 

Building  of  Railroads.  —  Except  for  a  short  steam  tram- 
way running  from  Manila  to  Malabon,  the  islands  had  but 
one  railway,  of  196  kilometers  length,  running  north  from 
Manila  through  the  rich  level  plain  of  Luzon  to  Dagupan 
on  the  Gulf  of  Lingayen.  The  royal  decree  granting  a  con- 
cession was  dated  April  25,  1885,  the  grant  following  in 
1887  when  construction  work  commenced.  The  road  was 
opened  to  traffic  in  several  sections  from  1891  to  1894. 
The  Spanish  decree  had  controlled  the  fixing  of  rates  and 
regulation  of  service  and  this  control  continued  to  be  ex- 
ercised by  the  government  under  the  United  States.     The 


12  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

Commission  served  as  a  public  utilities  commission.^  The 
conditions  authorized  by  Congress  and  published  by  the 
Philippine  government  were  somewhat  different  from  those 
of  the  Spanish  period.  The  presence  of  revolution  and  dis- 
order and  the  uncertainty  of  the  political  future  of  the  is- 
lands had  made  foreign  capital  distrustful  of  Philippine 
investments.  In  order  to  attract  investors,  it  was  found 
necessary  for  the  government  to  guarantee  interest  at  four 
per  cent,  for  a  period  of  thirty  years  on  the  bonds  of  rail- 
way companies  making  contracts  for  the  building  of  rail- 
ways, the  government  reserving  the  right  to  supervise  the 
construction  and  operation.^ 

Under  these  terms  725.8  kilometers  of  railway  have 
been  constructed  on  Luzon,  uniting  with  Manila  the 
provinces  of  Cavite,  Laguna,  Batangas,  and  Tayabas; 
118.7-1  kilometers  on  Panay  joining  the  coast  of  Kapis 
with  Iloilo ;  and  98.83  kilometers  along  the  eastern  coast 
of  Cebu.  These  roads  have  all  been  operated  with  profit 
and  there  will  apparently  be  no  necessity  for  the  Philip- 
pines government  to  give  financial  aid. 

Roads  and  Highways.  —  The  public  road  policy  inaug- 
urated by  Governor  Wright  was  less  fortunate.  Moun- 
tain roads  from  Iba  to  Tarlak,  from  Pagbilao  to  Atimonan, 
a  road  designed  to  cross  the  island  of  Samar,  and  a  road 
built  across  Cebu,  were  practically  not  utilized  by  the 
people  and  relapsed  into  ruin.  Local  roads  built  at 
heavy  expense  afforded  scant  returns.  The  absence  of 
draft  animals  frequently  made  it  impossible  to  use  such 


1  Later  a  board  of  rate  regulation  was  created  by  Act  1779,  composed 
of  the  Governor-General,  the  Secretary  of  Commerce  and  Police,  and 
one  other  person.     ( Rep.  1908,  p.  33.) 

2  Reoort  1905,  p.  3,  sq. 


A   DECADE    OF  AMERICAN   GOVERNMENT.  13 

roads  when  built.  There  was  not  provided,  as  later,  an 
organized  service  to  keep  them  in  repair,  and  the  damage 
by  storms  and  typhoons  each  year  was  great.  This  last 
difficulty  has  been  too  little  heeded.  Road  building  in 
tlie  Philippines  is  a  different  task  from  that  in  British  Ma- 
laysia or  Java,  where  mere  dirt  roads  suffice  and  macadam 
with  reasonable  attention  will  stand  unaffected  season  af- 
ter season.  In  the  Philippines  the  rainfall  accompanying 
a  typhoon  disturbance  is  enormous,  and  even  roads  of  most 
durable  construction  suffer  heavy  damage. 

Unable  to  utilize  these  improvements  fully,  the  people 
resented  the  burden  of  their  maintenance.  It  would  seem 
as  if  the  Philippines,  like  jNIexico  and  some  Spanish 
American  countries,  would  most  economically  pass  from 
the  stage  of  trails  and  paths  to  that  of  steam  or  electric 
roads.  The  islands  have  abundant  water  power  that  could 
be  utilized,  and  the  heavy  expenses  incurred  for  wagon 
roads  would  have  sufficed  in  many  cases  to  build  light 
railways  affording  immediate  transportation  to  a  people 
lacking  both  horses  and  vehicles. 

Civil  Service  System.  —  Mr.  Wright  was  a  strong  friend 
of  the  civil  service  system,  which  had  been  planted  in  the 
islands  at  the  very  beginning  of  the  work  of  the  Commis- 
sion. Amplification  of  the  law  having  been  found  desir- 
able, an  additional  act,  regulating  the  service  and  settling 
questions  of  absence  and  leave,  was  enacted  on  January 
12,  1904,  and  on  the  first  of  September  following  were 
promulgated  revised  civil  service  rules  further  systematiz- 
ing the  service  and  strengthening  the  merit  principle  on 
which  it  was  based. 

Reorganization  of  the  Administration.  —  The  insular  ad- 
ministration had  been  created  with  great  rapidity  and  on 


14  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

the  whole  with  admirable  results,  but  it  now  appeared  that 
the  cost  of  the  government  might  be  reduced  and  a  higher 
efficiency  reached  by  a  reorganization  of  bureaus  and  a 
standardizing  of  office  methods.  On  April  1,  1905,  Gov- 
ernor Wright  appointed  a  committee,  witli  Mr.  Forbes  as 
chairman,  which  carried  out  a  series  of  bureau  investiga- 
tions and  recommended  certain  changes  which  were  in 
large  measure  adopted  by  the  Commission  and  incorpo- 
rated in  Act  No.  1407,  enacted  October  16,  1905.  This 
measure,  known  as  the  "  Reorganization  Act,"  consoli- 
dated certain  branches  of  the  government.  The  bureaus 
of  Archives  and  of  Patents,  Copyrights  and  Trade  Marks 
were  united  to  the  Executive  Bureau.  The  Civil  Service 
office,  which  had  before  been  a  board  of  three  members, 
after  the  usual  American  pattern,  was  changed  to  a  bu- 
reau. The  Board  of  Health  likewise  became  a  bureau 
and  to  its  custody  were  added  the  Civil  Hospital,  the 
Baguio  Sanatorium  and  the  health  of  Bilibid  Prison.  The 
Bureau  of  Government  Laboratories  became  the  Bureau 
of  Science  and  the  Mining  Bureau  was  consolidated  with 
it.  The  Bureau  of  Architecture  was  abolished  and  its 
work  given  to  the  Bureau  of  Public  Works.  The  com- 
missary and  supply  store  in  Manila  organized  by  the  con- 
stabulary was  transferred  to  the  insular  purchasing  agent, 
whose  office  became  the  Bureau  of  Supply.  The  tele- 
graph system  operated  by  the  constabulary  was  transferred 
to  the  Bureau  of  Posts.  The  Ethnological  Survey  (pre- 
viously the  Bureau  of  Non-Christian  Tribes)  and  the  Ma- 
nila Library  were  added  to  the  Bureau  of  Education,  the 
first  to  be  transferred  a  little  later  to  the  Bureau  of 
Science  and  the  latter  in  1908  to  be  reorganized  under  the 
Philippine  Library  Board.     The  resulting  reorganization 


A   DECADE   OF  AMERICAN  GOVERNMENT:  15 

and  adininistriition  of  the  insular  government  was  as  fol- 
lows : 

The  Governor-General  retained  under  his  executive  su- 
pervision the  Executive  Bureau  and  the  Bureau  of  Civil 
Service. 

The  Department  of  the  Interior  embraced  the  Bureaus 
of  Health,  Lands  (newly  created  to  administer  the  acquired 
friar  lands  and  other  public  domain),  Science,  Agriculture, 
Forestry,  Quarantine  Service,  and  Weather,  with  general 
supervision  over  the  non-Christian  tribes  except  the  Moros, 
and  over  Philippine  fisheries. 

Tlie  Department  of  Commerce  and  Police  embraced  the 
Bureaus  of  Constabulary,  Public  Works,  Navigation,  Posts, 
Port  Works,  and  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey,  with  super- 
vision of  corporations  except  banks. 

The  Department  of  Finance  and  Justice  embraced  the 
Bureaus  of  Justice,  Audits,  Customs,  Internal  Revenue, 
Insular  Treasury,  and  the  city  of  Manila,  together  with 
geneml  supervision    of    banking,   coinage,   and   currency. 

The  Department  of  Public  Instruction  embraced  the  Bu- 
reaus of  Education,  Supply,  Prisons,  Printing,  and  Cold 
Storage,  with  general  supervision  over  libraries,  public 
charities,  and  museums.  In  1908  a  Bureau  of  Labor  was 
added  to  the  Department  of  Commerce  and  Police  and  in 
1910  the  Bureau  of  Agriculture  was  transferred  to  the 
Department  of  Public  Instruction.^ 

By  this  act  the  centralized  system  of  administration  was 
confirmed.  Executive  authority  is  centralized  in  the  Gov- 
ernor-General and  the  Secretaries  of  Departments,  wlio  ex- 
ercise administrative  control  over  the  bureaus.  The  heads 
of  the  bureaus,  uniformly  styled  by  this  act  "directors," 

1  (Act  1912  of  Philippine  Legislature.) 


16  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

are  the  responsible  heads  with  authority  over  the  person- 
nel and  tlie  undertakings  of  their  bureaus.  This  form  of 
administration,  modelled  as  it  is  upon  successful  continen- 
tal and  American  federal  experience,  is  a  great  improve- 
ment over  the  ordinary  decentralized  and  ununified  admin- 
istration of  American  states.  Its  advantages  have  been 
fully  demonstrated.  Only  in  a  few  instances  has  the  Phil- 
ippine government  shown  a  disposition  to  adopt  the  irre- 
sponsible and  disunited  "  board  type  "  of  administration  so 
common  in  American  state  governments.  The  administra- 
tion of  the  University  of  the  Philippines,  however,  has  fol- 
lowed the  usual  American  plan,  being  committed  to  a  Board 
of  Regents,  partly  ex-officio  and  partly  appointed  by  the 
Governor-General.  The  Library  Board  and  the  Board  of 
Industrial  Sales  Exhibit  are  recent  innovations  of  the  board 
type  of  administration. 

The  above  reorganization  somewhat  improved  the  admin- 
istration. It  did  not  greatly  reduce  the  office  personnel 
or  simplify  the  methods  except  in  the  field  of  disburse- 
ments, where  authority  was  consolidated  and  the  for- 
mer system  of  auditing  replaced  by  a  system  of  pre-audit 
and  a  better  property  accountability.  The  Pliilippine 
Government  was  perhaps  the  first  under  the  American  flag 
to  investigate  and  reform  its  administration  in  the  interests 
of  economy  and  efficiency  and  the  effort  is  correspond- 
ingly interesting  to  the  student  of  administration. 

Changes  in  Local  Government. — This  is  a  suitable  place 
to  notice  certain  modifications  in  the  plan  of  provincial  and 
municipal  government.  The  American  government  in  the 
Philippines  had  retained  the  Spanish  administrative  divi- 
sions, the  "  provinces,"  but  had  attempted  to  introduce 
the  principle  of  local  autonomy.     Almost  without  excep- 


A   DECADE   OF  AMERICAN   GOVERNMENT.  17 

tdon  modern  colonial  governments  place  the  district  or  pro- 
vincial administration  directly  under  the  head  of  the  colony 
and  fill  the  chief  post  of  resix)nsibility  with  a  trained  ap- 
pointive official.  But  the  American  Commissioners  had  in 
view  the  American  county  as  a  model  and  were  impressed 
with  the  evils  of  "  centralization"  and  "  autocracy."  They 
undertook  to  decentralize,  and  created  provincial  govern- 
ments of  the  "  commission  type"  ostensibly  autonomous  in 
their  powers.  However,  these  governments  were  never  en- 
trusted with  important  branches  of  the  service  or  utihzed 
by  the  insular  authorities  as  local  agents.  Education,  con- 
stabulary, forests,  mines,  lands,  and  posts  were  committed 
to  insular  bureaus  with  headquarters  in  Manila  and  repre- 
sentatives in  all  parts  of  the  islands.  At  first,  roads  and 
similar  public  improvements  were  constructed  by  the  pro- 
vincial boards,  but  in  1905  the  office  of  "supervisor"  was 
abolished  and  provincial  road  work  entrusted  to  district 
engrineers  of  the  insular  Bureau  of  Public  Works.  The 
place  of  the  supervisor  on  the  provincial  board  was  taken 
by  the  division  superintendent  of  schools.  Local  boards  of 
health  also  were  abandoned  in  favor  of  sanitation  by  the 
Bui-eau  of  Health.  These  arrangements  indicate  a  failure 
of  the  plan  of  decentralized  provincial  governments,  and  a 
disposition  not  to  entrust  them  with  any  real  powers.  The 
Reorganization  Act  made  a  decisive  change  toward  admin- 
istrative oversight  by  providing  that  the  Executive  Secre- 
tary should  have  general  supervision  over  the  provincial 
treasurer  and  provincial  administration,  review  the  action 
of  provincial  boards  in  assessing  the  land  tax,  and  approve 
all  appointments  to  the  subordinate  personnel  of  the  pro- 
vincial governments.  The  provincial  governments,  how- 
ever, were  obviously  too  expensive  for  the  slender  duties 


18  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

left  to  them.  Economy  was  gained  by  uniting  several 
small  provinces  with  larger  (Marinduki  with  Tayabas,  An- 
tiki  with  Iloilo,  Abra  with  Ilokos  Sur,  Masbate  with  Sor- 
sogon),  and  by  consolidating  the  offices  of  governor  and 
secretary,  or  secretary  and  treasurer.  The  separate  court 
for  Abra  was  abolished, "^  and  the  office  of  fiscal  in  two 
different  provinces  was  united  in  a  number  of  instances. 
Several  yeara  later  an  effort  was  made  to  increase  the  re- 
sponsibilities of  the  provincial  governments  and  the  third 
member  of  the  boaid  was  made  elective,  like  the  governor. 
More  recently  the  terms  of  office  of  both  these  officials  have 
been  extended  to  four  years.  In  spite  of  the  lack  of  any 
sound  theory  in  the  plan  of  provincial  governments,  they 
have  interested  the  people  and  have  accomplished  some 
notable  improvements,  including  the  erection  of  many  ex- 
cellent provincial  buildings. 

The  Commission  had  originally  adopted  the  "  pueblos  " 
as  the  basis  of  municipal  government.  But  the  plan  pro- 
vided by  the  Municipal  Code  of  1901^  was  overelaborate 
and  artificial,  required  too  many  paid  officials  and  was  too 
expensive  for  the  average  town.  Consolidation  was  early 
resorted  to.  In  1903  the  number  of  municipalities  was 
reduced  by  over  four  hundred.  Many  former  town  cen- 
ters were  thus  left  without  local  officials ;  buildings  and 
plazas  were  neglected.  The  whole  civic  spirit,  which 
with  Filipinos  centers  in  their  locality,  was  hurt.  More 
recent  years  have  seen  the  reincorporation  of  many  of 
these  towns.  The  Governor-General  was  given  authority 
to  effect  this  rehabilitation,  and  the  return  of  more  pros- 
perous years    has  brought   improvement   in  the    manner 


1  Act  1345,  May  19,  1905. 

2  Act  83. 


A  DECADE   OF  AMERICAN  GOVERNyfENT.  19 

in  wliich  municipal  goverraent  is  conducted,  though  many 
of  the  initial  defects  remain.  As  in  the  case  of  the  pro- 
vincial governments,  no  adequate  administrative  super- 
vision for  tlie  municipalities  has  ever  been  created. 

Improvements  to  the  City  of  Manila Other  public  un- 
dertakings which  date  from  this  time  are  the  Manila 
harbor  and  the  replanning  of  the  city.  To  a  large  degree 
the  Americans  followed  plans  which  the  Spaniards  had 
oiiginated  but  had  pressed  with  insufficient  energy  to  real- 
ize in  their  time. 

The  port  of  Manila  had  remained  for  centuries  unpro- 
tected from  heavy  winds  and  typhoons.  Cavite  offered 
the  only  passable  anchorage  for  ships  too  large  to  enter 
the  Pasig  river.  Ocean-going  steamers  at  Manila  lay  two 
miles  or  more  off  shore  and  transferred  their  freight  and 
passengers  to  lighters,  exposed  to  danger  during  the  sea- 
son of  typhoons.  A  splendid  port  was  formed  by  build- 
ing an  immense  breakwater  southward  from  the  mouth  of 
the  Pasig,  behind  which  the  sea  was  deepened.  The  ex- 
cavated mud  formed  a  great  fill  along  the  Malecon  drive 
and  the  Luneta,  and  was  also  pumped  into  the  old  moats 
and  "  contrafoso  "  around  the  city,  these  depressions  be- 
ing converted  into  sunken  gardens.  Steel  and  concrete 
piers  were  constructed  where  the  lai^est  ocean  craft  in  the 
Pacific  can  be  docked.  The  filled  area  added  two  hun- 
dred acres  of  new  land  to  the  water  front,  to  be  leased 
for  warehouse  and  transportation  facilities.  These  im- 
provements, practically  complete  by  May,  1908,  cost  over 
$4,000,000. 

Other  needs  of  Manila  were  equally  imperative.  The 
old  water  works,  provided  by  the  munificence  of  Carriedo, 
were  inadequate.    There  was  no  system  of  sewerage  except 


20  THE  PHILIPPINES 

open  drains  and  a  few  stone  cloacfie  which  discharged  into 
the  half-filled  moat  or  into  open  estuaries.  In  the  last  de- 
cades of  Spanish  authority  steps  had  been  taken  toward 
better  city  planning.  The  Botanical  Garden  had  been  laid 
out.  Certain  radial  avenues  were  opened  and  the  great 
circling  thoroughfare,  the  Paseo  Azcarraga  and  its  exten- 
sions, dedicated  to  traffic,  but  still  the  streets  of  the 
city  and  its  many  suburbs  were  narrow,  crooked,  and  ill 
planned.  In  1904,  the  Commission  engaged  the  famous 
landscape  architect,  Mr.  D.  H.  Burnham,  to  come  to  Ma- 
nila and  develop  a  comprehensive  plan  for  improvement 
and  growth  of  the  city.  Breaches  were  made  in  the  old 
walls  in  several  places  to  allow  new  streets  to  enter,  but 
the  noble  and  interesting  gateways  as  well  as  all  valuable 
parts  of  the  wall  were  preserved.  The  flat  and  low  site 
of  the  city  made  a  sewerage  plan  difficult,  but  work  begun 
at  this  time  has  gradually  produced  a  comprehensive  sys- 
tem of  waste  disposal  and  drainage.  The  water  system 
was  greatly  enlarged  and  improved,  at  an  expense  of  about 
'12,000,000,  the  Marikina  river  being  dammed  25  miles 
from  Manila  and  water  secured  from  high  in  the  moun- 
tains above  all  human  habitations.  The  Commission  did 
not  seek  to  municipalize  other  public  services.  Franchises 
were  given  or  renewed  for  a  telephone  service  and  for 
street  railways  and  for  electric  lighting.  These  were  ob- 
tained by  American  companies.  The  electric  car  service 
was  opened  in  1904. 

Political  Difficulties  and  Disorders.  —  On  the  political 
side  Mr.  Wright's  administration  was  less  impressive. 
A  considerable  body  of  irreconcilable  Filipino  opposition 
still  existed,  and  there  was  neither  confidence  nor  under- 
standing  between    the    American   authorities   and   those 


A   DECADE   OF  AMERICAN  GOVERNMENT.  21 

Filipinos  most  able  to  support  the  American  government 
and  its  policies.  The  production  of  incendiary  literature 
and  dramas  had  led  in  November,  1901,  to  the  passage 
of  the  Sedition  Act  and  to  prosecutions  thereunder.  Early 
in  1903  the  Filipinos  who  had  been  taken  as  prisonera  to 
Guam  at  the  close  of  1900,  were  pardoned  and  returned. 
The  most  prominent  was  Mabini,  who  took  the  oath  of  al- 
legiance, landed  in  Manila,  and  a  few  weeks  later  fell  a 
victim  to  cholera.  One  of  these  radicals,  Ricarte,  refused 
to  tiike  the  oath,  and  was  sent  to  Hongkong.  He  returned 
secretly  to  Manila  shortly  after  and  raised  a  revolt  in 
Rizal  province.  Due  to  his  influence  a  company  of  con- 
stabulary in  Bigan,  Ilokos  Sur,  mutinied.  Another  noto- 
rious leader,  San  Miguel,  was  defeated  and  killed  in  a 
retired  spot  near  Manila,  called  Corral-na-bato,  in  March, 
1903.  A  number  of  other  outlaws  in  Cavite  and  Batangas, 
however,  defied  the  constabulary.  These  men,  Sakay, 
Montalon,  Felizardo,  de  Vega  and  a  number  more,  were 
perhaps  the  most  desperate  and  cruel  leaders  in  the  history 
of  the  insurrection.  They  had  arms  and  they  increased 
their  followers  by  forced  recruiting  whenever  a  raid  was 
made.  By  terrorism,  assassination,  and  robbery  they  kept 
the  provinces  of  Rizal,  Cavite,  and  Batangas  in  a  constant 
state  of  disorder  and  alarm.  On  January  21,  1905,  the 
town  of  Malabon  was  raided  by  these  outlaws.  The  sur- 
geon on  duty  with  the  command  of  scouts  was  killed,  and 
the  wife  of  General  Trias,  a  former  insurgent  leader,  was 
carried  away.  These  disturbances  demanded  increased  ac- 
tivity. The  outlaws  were  few,  but  they  were  elusive  and 
the  constabulary  had  little  success  in  pursuing  them  ;  con- 
sequently American  troops  were  called  upon.  Governor- 
General  Wright  put  the  province  under  martial  law  and 


22  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

with  the  consent  of  the  Commission  authorized  the  con- 
centration of  the  barrio  population.  It  appears  certain 
that  in  this  last  step  Mr.  Wright  was  ill-advised.  He  was 
not  on  terms  of  confidence  with  the  Filipinos  whose  coun- 
sel and  help  would  have  availed  much  and  he  allowed  sus- 
picion to  fall  upon  men  who  were  capable  of  furnishing 
loyal  support.  Some  of  the  measures  resorted  to  by  con- 
stabulary officers  were  lawless  and  indefensible  and  were 
neither  properly  investigated  nor  punished.  The  recon- 
centration  was  a  grievous  hardship  to  many  thousands  of 
innocent  people.  Crops  were  lost,  property  was  destroyed, 
and  a  feeling  of  most  ominous  bitterness  was  aroused. 

The  Pulahan.  —  Besides  these  difficulties  in  Luzon  and 
in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  Manila,  the  island  of 
Samar  was  swept  by  a  frightful  outbreak  of  fanatics, 
known  as  the  "  Pulahan."  The  name  seems  to  be  derived 
from  "  pula,"  meaning  red,  and  to  refer  to  the  red  trousers 
at  one  time  worn  by  these  devotees.  Their  origin  dates 
back  at  least  to  the  '80s  and  is  connected  with  supersti- 
tious beliefs  in  the  power  of  magical  charms,  "  anting-ant- 
ing,"  which  make  the  possessor  invisible  or  invulnerable. 
Such  a  band  assaulted  the  town  of  Borongan  on  the  east 
coast  of  Samar  in  1886,  was  badly  punished  by  the 
Guardia  Civil  stationed  there,  but  under  their  leader  Otoy 
continued  to  maintain  an  outlaw  existence  in  the  interior 
of  this  very  rugged  island  during  the  last  years  of  Spanish 
sovereignty  and  the  early  years  of  American  occupation. 
In  1904  some  of  these  men,  with  recruits  from  the  barrio 
population  of  the  towns,  rebelled.  Tliey  had  apparently 
some  grievances  of  a  solid  character.  The  local  officials, 
including  the  presidents  of  the  municipalities,  were  agents 
of  the  hemp-buying  companies  and  had  used  their  author- 


A   DECADE   OF  AMERICAN  GOVERNMENT.  23 

ity  to  rob  and  exploit  the  humbler  classes.  These  now 
took  a  terrible  revenge.  Town  after  town  was  swept 
away  by  pillage  and  fire.  The  Gandara  valley  on  the  west 
coast  was  desolated  and  on  the  Pacific  coast  not  a  muni- 
cipality was  left  undestroyed  except  the  heavily  garrisoned 
town  of  Borongan.  Several  engagements  were  desperate 
and  disastrous.  Two  detachments  of  scouts  stationed  at 
Oras  and  Dolores  were  practically  annihilated.  The  Pula- 
han's  favorite  weapon  was  a  long  heavy  knife,  broad  at 
the  end  and  running  to  a  sharp  point  with  which  he  thrust 
as  he  charged.  Inspired  with  fanatical  belief  in  his  own 
invulnerability  he  was  a  most  desperate  foe  man.  Ameri- 
can troops  were  finally  thrown  into  the  island  and  with  the 
able  and  tactful  administration  of  iNIr.  George  Curry,  who 
was  appointed  governor,  brought  the  devastation  to  an 
end.  Otoy,  who  seems  to  have  been  the  originator  of  the 
movement,  was  not  killed,  however,  until  1910. 

Visit  of  Secretary  Taf t  and  Party.  —  Advices  of  these 
alarming  disturbances  and  of  the  prevailing  alienation  of 
Filipinos  from  the  government  induced  Mr.  Taft,  the  Sec- 
retary of  War  immediately  responsible  for  Philippine  af- 
fairs, to  visit  the  islands  in  1905.  He  was  attended  by  a 
distinguished  party  of  Americans  which  included  a  num- 
ber of  United  States  Senators  and  members  of  Congress, 
newspaper  correspondents,  and  the  daughter  of  the  Presi- 
dent. The  visit  was  the  occasion  of  many  interesting  re- 
ceptions, conferences,  and  trips  to  several  parts  of  the  is- 
lands. Before  the  departure  of  the  party  an  open  meeting 
was  held  by  congressmen  for  the  frank  report  of  all  criti- 
cisms. The  visit  improved  feeling  and  led  to  a  betterment 
of  the  constabulary  service.  In  December  Governor 
Wright  returned  to  Washington  on  business  for  the  islands, 


24 


THE  PHILIPPINES. 


and  while  there  was  appointed  to  the  newly  created  post  of 
ambassador  to  Japan.  He  filled  this  position  with  distinc- 
tion and  in  the  last  months  of  Mr.  Roosevelt's  administra- 
tion he  became  Secretary  of  War. 

Administration  of  Governor-General  Ide —  Mr.  Henry 
Clay  Ide,  who  had  been  vice-governor  and  secretary  of 
finance  and   justice,    became  acting  governor-general    on 

November  4  and  was  in- 
augurated governor-gen- 
eral on  April  12,  1906. 
Before  becoming  chief 
executive  of  the  islands, 
Mr.  Ide  had  done  ex- 
tremely valuable  service 
on  the  Commission.  His 
management  of  Philip- 
pine finances  had  been 
aide  and  prudent.  He 
i|^  .  ^r-^^^^^Mn^Mji^H  was  largely  the  framer  of 
V  ^^BUH^f      the  Code  Pro- 

\  ^^^^^^^^^^m        cedure  adopted   by  Act 

190,   in    August,   1901. 
He     was    likewise    the 
principal  author  of    the 
Governor-General  Ide.  Internal    Revenue    Law 

of  1904,  enacted  when  it  became  apparent  that  the  customs 
and  other  revenues  would  not  suffice  to  support  the  gov- 
ernment. This  law,  which  laid  increased  taxes  on  the 
manufacture  of  intoxicants  and  tobacco,  on  banks  and  in- 
surance companies,  lightened  the  burdens  on  other  indus- 
tries and  in  spite  of  opposition  at  the  commencement 
proved  a  valuable  tax  measure  and  regulatoiy  law. 


A   DECADE   OF  AMERICAN   GOVERNMENT.  25 

Reform  of  Currency.  —  To  Mr.  Ide  in  large  measure 
must  be  ascribed  the  reform  of  the  Philippine  currency, 
one  of  the  most  brilliant  achievements  of  the  American  ad- 
ministration. The  common  money  of  the  Far  East  is 
Mexican  silver.  The  Spanish  government  of  the  Philip- 
pines late  in  its  life  established  a  Spanish-Filipino  coinage 
and  a  mint  was  created  in  Manila.  It  was  located  in  the 
building  called  Casa  de  Moneda,  now  occupied  as  office 
(piarters  by  the  Bureau  of  P^ducation.  At  the  commence- 
ment of  American  occupation  Mexican  money  flowed  back 
into  the  Archipelago  and  became  with  other  foreign  coins 
the  common  medium  of  exchange.  There  was  a  lack  of 
coinage,  especially  of  small  coins.  In  Northern  Luzon 
copper  forgeries,  called  "  sipings,"  made  by  the  Igorot  of 
Mankayan  district,  freely  circulated.  During  the  first  two 
years  of  American  occupation  Mexican  pesos  were  valued 
at  half  an  American  dollar.  But  in  1901  the  value  of  sil- 
ver began  to  fall  all  over  the  world  and  a  Mexican  dollar 
ceased  to  be  worth  fifty  cents  gold.  The  depreciation  con- 
tinued by  gradual  downward  stages  throughout  succeed- 
ing months  until  in  March,  1903,  it  required  2  pesos  and 
66  centavos  to  equal  in  value  a  dollar  of  gold.  The  loss 
to  labor  and  to  business  was  very  great.  A  person  receiv- 
ing a  wage  or  salary  in  silver  found  the  purchasing  power 
of  his  income  was  rapidly  lessening.  Prices  were  disturl^ed. 
As  the  government  was  still  receiving  Mexican  money  in 
payment  of  taxes  and  customs  its  revenues  were  seriously 
affected.  From  January  to  October,  1902  alone,  its  losses 
were  nearly  a  million  pesos.  The  losses  to  individuals  ran 
into  untold  sums.  On  the  urgent  recommendation  of  the 
Philippines  Commission,  Congress  on  May  2, 1902,  passed 
an  act  authorizing  a  coinage  system  for  the  Philippines 


26  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

with  a  standard  Philippine  dollar,  or  "  peso,"  worth  fifty 
cents  of  American  money  and  exchangeable  at  government 
treasuries  for  this  amount.  The  designs  for  the  peso,  half 
peso,  peseta,  and  centavo  were  made  by  a  Filipino,  Mr. 
Melecio  Figueroa.  Over  seventeen  million  dollars  of  these 
attractive  coins  were  received  in  1903.  Furthermore, 
paper  certificates,  furnishing  a  portable  and  convenient 
currency,  were  printed  at  Washington,  the  most  commonly 
used  piece,  two  pesos,  bearing  the  effigy  of  Jose  Rizal. 
Mexican  money,  no  longer  acceptable  for  taxes  or  legal 
tender,  was  driven  out  of  the  islands,  while  the  old  Span- 
ish-Filipino coins  were  redeemed  by  the  government. 
This  creation  of  a  sound  and  convenient  money  was  one  of 
the  finest  triumphs  of  the  government.  Its  advantages 
were  appreciated  immediately  by  all  classes,  and  contrary 
to  expectations  the  Filipinos  even  in  remote  parts  of  the 
islands  quickly  familiarized  themselves  with  the  paper  cur- 
rency and  accepted  it  willingly. 

Opium  Legislation.  —  In  1903  it  became  evident  that 
the  habit  of  using  opium  was  rapidly  extending  among 
Filipinos,  particularly  in  the  Kagayan  valley,  in  Sam  bales, 
and  in  the  Moro  country.  Spanish  laws  had  forbidden 
the  drug  to  Filipinos  but  had  permitted  its  use  to  Chinese 
in  licensed  smoking  establishments.  The  failure  to  regu- 
late left  the  vice  free  to  spread.  A  regulatory  measure 
on  the  lines  of  previous  Spanish  law  was  prepared  by 
General  Smith,  Secretary  of  Public  Instruction,  and  laid 
before  the  Commission  in  1903.  Much  opposition  was 
expressed  to  it,  especially  by  the  "  Evangelical  Union," 
and  after  several  discussions  of  the  measure  the  Com- 
mission determined  to  postpone  action  pending  further 
investigation.     A  committee  was  provided,  consis&ng  of 

i 


A   DECADE   OF  AMERICAN  GOVERNMENT.  27 

Major  Carter  of  the  United  States  Army,  who  had  been 
head  of  the  sanitary  service,  Dr.  Jose  Albert,  and  Bishop 
Charles  H.  Brent  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church. 
This  committee  visited  neighboring  countries  and  studied 
opium  laws  abroad,  and  on  their  return  recommended  a 
measure  modelled  largely  upon  Japanese  legislation  in 
Formosa,  which  aimed  to  suppress  the  use  of  the  drug 
completely.  Such  a  law  was  enacted  and  under  its  rig- 
orous enforcement  this  vice  has  ceased  to  be  a  factor  in 
the  problems  of  the  islands.  The  splendid  moral  power 
shown  by  the  Chinese  people  in  recent  years  in  throwing 
off  this  habit  has  doubtless  helped  to  reduce  to  a  min- 
imum the  use  of  opium  in  the  Philippines. 

Standard  Weights  and  Measures.  —  In  1906  after  a 
careful  study  of  the  matter  by  government  experts  in  the 
Bureau  of  Science,  the  system  of  weights  and  measures 
was  reformed  and  legalized.  Standards  of  weight  and 
capacity  had  become  deplorably  falsified  and  irregular.  It 
was  commonly  said  that  the  only  reliable  unit  of  measure 
remaining  was  a  Standard  Oil  can.  The  debasement  and 
frauds  practised  fell  heaviest,  as  such  irregularities  do, 
upon  the  poorest  purchasers.  It  was  decided  to  adopt  the 
international  metric  system  which  the  Spanish  government 
had  decreed,  and  it  was  found  possible  to  standardize  the 
native  measures,  the  "kaban,"  "ganta,"  and  "chupa"  in 
terms  of  the  metric  system.  A  ganta  was  made  exactly 
equal  to  three  liters  and  such  local  standards  were  author- 
ized until  January  1,  1909.^ 

Postal  Savings.  —  In  October,  1906,  there  was  estab- 
lished   under   the    Bureau    of   Posts  a  "  Postal  Savings 


1  Act  1510,  enacted  August  3,  1906. 


28  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

Bank,"  a  measure  wisely  designed  to  encourage  money  sav- 
ing and  thrift  among  those  too  poor  to  avail  themselves  of 
ordinary  banking  facilities.'  The  measure  proved  popular. 
Its  use  was  taught  in  the  schools,  where  prizes  were  offered 
for  savings  among  pupils,  and  in  June,  1908,  it  was  re- 
ported that  there  were  245  offices  with  deposits  of  over  a 
million  pesos,  credited  to  5389  depositors,  45  per  cent  of 
them  being  Filipinos.  This  measure  so  commended  it- 
self to  Mr.  Taft  that  as  President  he  secured  the  enact- 
ment by  Congress  of  a  similar  system  for  the  people  of  the 
United  States. 

Surrender  of  the  Cabecillas.  —  Mr.  Ide's  governorship  saw 
the  final  destruction  of  the  tulisan  or  ladron  leaders,  who 
for  so  many  years  had  filled  central  Luzon  with  murder 
and  disorder.  The  rigorous  policy  authorized  by  Gov- 
ernor-General Wright  in  Cavite,  which  has  been  referred  to 
above,  secured  the  breaking  up  of  the  bands  and  the  cap- 
ture of  numerous  firearms,  but  it  did  not  apprehend  the 
leaders  or  "  cabecillas."  Later  in  1905,  however,  Felizardo 
was  killed  by  some  of  liis  own  followers  and  a  few  months 
later  the  others,  Sakay,  Montalon,  de  Vega,  and  Villa- 
fuerte,  were  induced  to  surrender.  The  circumstances  of 
this  event  did  not  produce  a  favorable  impression,  glad  as 
all  were  to  be  freed  of  these  bandits.  Early  in  1906 
Governor-General  Ide  authorized  the  constabulary  to  use 
the  services  of  the  political  agitator,  Dr,  Dominador  Gomez, 
who  had  supposedly  been  in  occasional  communication  with 
these  cabecillas  during  their  period  of  outlawry.  What 
terms  the  goverment  made  with  him  has  never  been  dis- 
closed.    The  executive  was  careful  to  stipulate  that  no 


1  Act  1493,  Mav  9A.  t«nft. 


A    DECADE    OF  AMERICAN   GOVERNMENT.  29 

terras  were  to  be  offered  to  the  outlaws  and  that  the  sur- 
render should  be  unconditional.  The  men,  with  what 
expectations  will  perhaps  never  be  known,  came  out  of 
the  mountains  north  of  Lake  Bay  where  they  had  con- 
cealed themselves,  appeared  at  Manila,  and,  after  a  confer- 
ence, surrendered.  They  were  tried  in  Cavite  before  an 
able  Filipino  judge  who  sentenced  them  to  death. 
Meanwhile  Mr.  Ide  had  retired  and  the  appeal  for  their 
reprieve  came  before  the  new  executive.  Governor- General 
James  F.  Smith.  This  conscientious  executive  with  ex- 
haustive patience  faced  the  whole  body  of  facts  in  the 
case  and  in  an  able  and  convincing  summary  extended 
clemency  to  two  and  sent  the  others  to  the  gallows.* 

Filipino  Parties.  —  The  governoi-ship  of  Mr.  Ide  marked 
the  beginning  of  renewed  political  activity  among  the  Fili- 
pinos. As  early  as  1900  the  active  efforts  of  Mr.  Taft 
and  his  associates  to  reach  an  understanding  with  the  Fili- 
pinos had  led  to  the  formation  of  the  first  political  party 
in  the  history  of  the  Philippines,  the  Partidn  Federal. 
It  was  organized  to  secure  peace  under  the  sovereignty  of 
the  United  States.  Its  first  platform  was  adopted  Decem- 
ber 23,  1900.2  \^  program  renewed  the  "  assimilation  " 
idea  of  a  time  while  the  islands  were  still  under  Spain. 
"  The  Federal  Party,"  wrote  Dr.  Pardo,  "  is  constantly  la- 
boring to  show  to  the  Filipino  people  that  nothing  will 
benefit  them  as  much  as  an  unconditional  adoption  of 
American  civilization,  in  order  that  they  may  at  the  proper 
time  constitute  a  state  similar   to  others  of    the    Union. 


>  Report  1907,  I,  pp.  37-42. 

2  Printed  in  Mr.  Taft's  testimony  before  the  Senate  Committee  in 
1902;  also  in  part  2,  Report  of  Lieutenant- General  Commanding  Army, 
for  1902,  p.  122;  see  also  a  history  of  the  party  in  appendix  to  the  Re- 
port of  the  Philippine  Commission,  December,  1901. 


30  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

This  is  the  final  purpose  of  its  platform  which  clearly  ex- 
plains the  aspirations  of  the  party,  which  are,  briefly,  as 
follows :  a  steadily  increasing  autonomy,  the  separation  of 
church  and  state,  representation  of  the  Philippines  in  the 
Federal  Congress,  and  the  adoption  of  the  American  Con- 
stitution, culminating  at  last  in  the  admission  of  the  is- 
lands as  one  of  the  states  of  the  Union,  i"  The  party  was 
governed  by  a  "  directorate  "  of  seven  members  and  by  a 
"  council  of  government "  of  twenty-five  members.  Affil- 
iated committees  existed  in  all  the  provinces.  A  party 
assembly  or  convention  was  held  at  Manila  in  1901  and 
a  memorial  presented  to  Congress.  At  subsequent  con- 
ventions in  1902,  1904,  and  1905,  policies  were  debated. 
Congress  petitioned,  and  the  discipline  of  the  party  per- 
fected. During  this  period  the  party  included  some  of 
the  ablest  men  in  the  archipelago,  whose  labors  of  co- 
operation entitled  them  to  the  confidence  and  gratitude 
of  the  government.  Of  their  ranks  were  most  of  the 
Filipinos  selected  during  this  period  for  public  appoint- 
ment. 

Persons  who  held  more  radical  views  and  upheld  the 
principle  of  independence  maintained  no  organization  for 
a  number  of  years.  The  existence  of  rebellion  and  bri- 
gandage down  to  1906  made  the  agitation  for  independ- 
ence dangerous  and  such  advocacy  was  forbidden  by  the 
"  Treason  and  Sedition  Law."  This  law  penalized  every 
form  of  secret  association  and  provided  that  until  it  had 
been  officially  proclaimed  that  a  state  of  war  or  insurrec- 
tion no  longer  existed  in  the  Philippines,  it  should  be  un- 
lawful for  any  person  to  advocate  orally,  or  by  writing  or 


1  page  164,  Report,  1901. 


A   DECADE   OF  AMERICAN  GOVERNMENT.  31 

printing,  or  like  methods,  the  independence  of  the  Philip- 
pine Islands  or  their  separation  from  the  United  States.  ^ 

The  government  was  not  left  free,  however,  from 
troubles  occasioned  by  agitators  or  revolutionists.  Among 
the  prominent  "  irreconcilables  "  (intransigentes^  who  re- 
turned from  exile  was  Mr.  Isabelo  de  los  Reyes,  who  dur- 
ing the  period  of  active  insurrection  had  published  in 
Europe  an  anti-American  journal  entitled  Filipinas  ante 
Europa.  He  was  joined  by  Dr.  Dominador  Gomez,  who 
had  been  in  the  medical  service  of  the  Spanish  army. 
They  started  what  was  ostensibly  a  labor  organization 
called  La  Unidn  Ohrera.  In  October,  1903,  Reyes  began 
the  publication  of  a  labor  and  socialist  organ  La  Medencidn 
del  Ohrero?  The  government  regarded  this  union  as  an  il- 
legal association  and  Dr.  Gomez  was  three  times  unsuc- 
cessfully prosecuted  on  the  charge  of  founding  and  sup- 
porting such  an  organization.  About  the  same  time  the 
"  Nationalist  Party "  was  organized  by  Mr.  Pasqual 
Poblete,  the  editor  of  a  Manila  paper  called  El  Crrito  del 
Pueblo.  This  paper  advocated  amnesty  to  the  ladron 
leaders  or  "  cabecillas  "  and  urged  these  revolutionists  to 
surrender  on  condition  that  the  United  States  would 
promise  independence. 

The  disturbed  condition  which  had  prevailed  during 
Mr.  Wright's  administration,  the  sedition  in  Manila,  the 
brigandage  that  prevailed  in  Cavite  and  Batangas,  and 
the  Pulahan  devastation  on  Samar  had  all  retarded  the 
participation  of  the  Filipinos  in  political  affairs,  and 
caused  the  government  to  look  with  suspicion  upon  such 
activity  as  that  above  described.     But  the  improved  con- 

»  Act  292,  enacted  Nov.  4,  1901. 

2  See  Nos.  11  and  15  of  this  publication  for  a  history  of  the  organiza- 
tion. 


32  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

ditious  of  order  made  it  possible  for  Mr.  Ide  to  adopt  a 
more  friendly  attitude  toward  political  groups  whose  proxi- 
mate aim  was  independence.  Expectations  of  the  early 
inauguration  of  the  Philippine  Assembly  were  bringing 
forward  many  ambitious  young  Filipinos  disposed  to  enter 
public  life  and  willing  to  co-operate  with  the  American 
authorities  for  the  advance  of  the  country. 

Elections  of  1905  and  1906. — The  biennial  elections  for 
municipal  officers  occurred  in  December,  1905,  and  those 
for  provincial  governors  in  the  following  February.  Un- 
usual interest  attended  them.  Good  order  was  main- 
tained everywhere,  but  the  number  of  disputed  elections 
was  very  great.  In  some  provinces  every  municipal  elec- 
tion was  contested.  In  one  province  19  successive  bal- 
lots for  governor  were  necessary  before  a  candidate  was 
chosen.  Of  the  32  provinces  organized  under  the  Pro- 
vincial Government  Act,  governors  were  popularly  elected 
in  29.  In  Cavite,  Samar,  and  Isabela,  where  political 
rights  had  been  suspended,  the  governors  were  appointees 
of  the  Governor-General.  Of  the  above  29  men  chosen 
by  representatives  of  the  people,  only  one,  Mr.  Reynolds  in 
Albay,  was  an  American.  The  others  for  the  most  part 
were  representatives  of  a  new  spirit.  They  were  notice- 
able for  their  youth,  progressive  attitude,  and  eagerness 
to  prove  themselves  able  and  efficient  in  their  positions. 
Their  election  marked  a  general  advance  in  the  spirit  of 
co-operation  between  the  provincial  authorities  and  Ma- 
nila. Several,  like  Cailles  in  Laguna,  Luna  in  Ilokos  Sur, 
Zialcita  in  Bataan,  and  Sandiko  in  Bulacan  had  been  lead- 
ers in  the  insurrection  against  American  authority  a  few 
years  before.  Others  had  not  previously  been  conspicuous 
in  public  affairs.     Such  were  Osmena  in  Cebu,  de  Veyra 


A  DECADE   OF  AMERICAN  GOVERNMENT.  33 

in  Leyte,  Queson  in  Tayabas,  Borja  in  Bohol,  Gabaldon 
in  Nueva  Ecija,  Arnedo  in  Panipanga,  and  Artacho  in 
Pangasinan.  The  ability  displayed  by  these  men  as  gov- 
ernors led  to  their  taking  a  leading  part  in  the  subsequent 
politics  of  the  country  and  in  the  Philippine  Assembly. 
The  large  influence  subsequently  exerted  by  Mr.  Osmeila, 
who  was  to  be  the  first  speaker  of  the  Assembly,  gives  in- 
terest to  a  petition  framed  under  his  influence  that  was 
presented  to  Secretary  Taft  and  party  on  their  visit  to 
Cebu,  August  15,  1905.  This  memorial  petitioned  for  a 
declaration  by  Congress  of  its  ultimate  policy  for  the 
Philippines,  the  creation  of  positions  of  undersecretaries  of 
departments  to  be  filled  by  Filipinos,  greater  limitations 
upon  executive  and  legislative  authority,  modifications  in 
the  criminal  procedure  in  favor  of  the  criminal,  for  the 
assignment  and  transfer  of  judges  of  first  instance  by  the 
Supreme  Court  rather  than  the  executive,  for  greater 
economy  in  certain  branches  of  administration,  for  the 
reorganization  of  the  constabulary  on  a  popular  basis,  for 
the  removal  of  treasurers  from  the  classified  civil  service, 
for  the  protection  of  Filipino  labor,  and  protested  the 
grant  of  perpetual  and  irrevocable  franchises. 

The  time  had  come  for  the  free  organization  of  the 
Filipinos  into  political  parties,  and  several  parties  now 
ai)peared. 

Organization  of  New  Parties — The  immediate  independ- 
ence party,  Partido  Independista  Inmediata,  was  founded 
July  1,  1906.^  The  membership  embraced  the  more 
radical  of  those  seeking  to  attain  independence  by  legal 
means.     Among  their  members    were    Messrs.   Ledesma, 


1  See  El  Renacimiento  of  July  2,  1906,  for  an  account  of  organiza- 
tion and  for  the  platform. 


34  THE   PHILIPPINES. 

Barretto,  Sandiko,  Osmena,  Fernando  Maria  Guerrero, 
and  Dr.  Lukban,  a  brother  of  the  insurgent  general.  A 
committee  of  the  party  waited  upon  Governor  Ide  to  inform 
him  of  their  legal  intentions.  They  were  affably  received. 
The  periodical  La  Independenda  was  founded  as  the  organ 
of  the  party,  which  also  had  the  active  support  of  the  very 
influential  Filipino  journal  El  Renacimiento. 

A  party  of  more  moderate  workers  for  independence 
who  were  opposed  to  immediate  separation  from  the  United 
States  formed  the  Partido  Unidn  Nacionalufa  on  March  12, 
1907.  Among  their  members  were  sucli  influential  Fili- 
pinos as  del  Pan,  Apacible,  Liougson,  Ocanipo,  and  Pro- 
fessor Leon  Maria  Guerrero. 

Numerous  attempts  to  solidify  these  elements  have  grad- 
ually resulted  in  uniting  those  working  for  early  independ- 
ence of  the  islands  into  a  single  national  party.  It  is  to 
be  observed,  however,  that  all  of  these  parties  proclaimed 
for  a  guaranteed  independence,  or  au  independence  un 
der  American  protection.  The  only  political  element  ex- 
pressing its  advocacy  of  immediate  independence  without 
American  support  of  any  kind  was  the  radical  association 
of  Dr.  Domiiiador  Gomez.  Meanwhile,  the  Federal  Party 
continued  its  activities  and  still  appeared  to  be  the  best  or- 
ganized and  most  strongly  supported  political  aggregation. 
Its  early  policy  of  entrance  into  the  American  Union  had 
become  demonstrably  hopeless  and  ultimate  nationality 
was  too  attractive  and  legitimate  an  aspiration  to  be  de- 
nied. At  a  conference  held  in  January,  1907,  the  Federal 
Party,  while  reaffirming  its  adhesion  to  principles  pub- 
lished in  1905,  changed  its  name  to  the  "  Progressive 
V'd.viy^\Partido  Nacional  Progresista),  -dnd  its  program  to 
one  of  ultimate  nationality.  The  party  organ  continued 
to  be  La  Democracia. 


A   DECADE   OF  AMERICAN  GOVERNMENT.  35 

Inauguration  of  Governor-General  Smith.  -—  In  the  midst 
of  these  active  political  movements  Mr.  Ide  retired  from 
the  service  of  the  islands  and    General  James  F.  Smith 

was  inaugurated  Gov- 
ernor-General on  Sep- 
tember 20,  1906.  A 
week  later  Mr,  W. 
Morgan  Shuster,  Col- 
lector of  Customs,  was 
appointed  Commis- 
sioner and  Secretary 
of  Public  Instruction. 
General  Smith  was  a 
native  Californian  and 
at  the  outbreak  of 
the  Spanish- American 
War  an  attorney  in 
San  Francisco.  He 
was  a  member  of  the 
first  military  expedi- 
tion to  the  Philip- 
Governor-General  smith.  pjj^gg^   ^^^    ^^l^j^gl    ^£ 

t'.ie  1st  California.  After  military  service  in  the  vicinity 
of  Manila  he  was  appointed  brigadier-general  of  volunteere 
and  military-governor  of  the  island  of  Negros,  where  the 
people  had  organized  an  independent  government  and 
sought  American  sovereignty.  Subsequently  he  became 
Collector  of  Customs  for  the  Philippines,  Associate  Justice 
of  the  Supreme  Court,  and  on  January  1,  1903,  Philip- 
pine Commissioner  and  Secretary  of  Public  Instruction. 
He  possessed  wide  acquaintance  with  the  Filipinos,  and 
sympathy  for  their  aspirations.  ' 


86  TBE  PHILIPPINES. 

Immediately  upon  his  inauguration  the  Governor-Gen- 
eral  assembled  the  provincial  governors  in  jManila  in  a  con- 
ference, which  opened  on  October  1.  Governor  Osmeila  of 
Cebu  was  chosen  presiding  officer.  The  conference  consid- 
ered a  number  of  matters  submitted  by  the  chief  executive, 
among  them  the  new  election  law,  the  question  of  the  land 
tax,  road  construction,  financial  conditions,  agriculture, 
sanitation,  and  municipal  economy.  As  a  result  of  its 
recommendations  two  important  changes  were  made  in  tlie 
provincial  governments, —  the  third  member  became  elec- 
tive and  the  boards  were  empowered  to  impose  or  suspend 
the  land  tax.  This  tax  had  been  provided  in  1901  for  the 
support  of  local  government,  but  it  was  foreign  to  Philip- 
pine fiscal  experience  and  was  unpopular.  The  method  of 
assessment  was  imperfect.  Owing  to  these  facts  and  to 
the  agricultural  depression,  the  Commission  had  twice  sus- 
pended its  operation,  providing  for  local  needs  by  insular 
appropriations.  Now,  faced  by  the  alternative  of  impos- 
ing the  tax  themselves  or  foregoing  local  funds,  the  provin- 
cial boards  in  all  but  two  provinces  imposed  the  tax  in 
1907. 

The  Philippine  Assembly.  —  The  opening  of  the  Philip- 
pine Assembly  was  the  distinguishing  incident  of  General 
Smith's  administration,  as  well  as  the  culmination  of  the 
legislative  program  of  Congress  for  the  Philippines.  To 
many  students  of  colonial  government  the  creation  of  this 
native  legislature  appeared  radical  and  dangerous.  It  was 
without  precedent  in  tropical  colonies.  Spain  never  per- 
mitted the  establishment  of  a  legislative  body  in  any  of 
her  great  dependencies  of  either  America  or  Asia,  legisla- 
tive power  being  strictly  reserved  to  the  home  government 
where  it  took  the  form  in  the  early  centuries  of  Spanish 


A  DECADE   OF  AMERICAN  GOVERNMENT.  37 

empire  of  statutes  of  the  Council  of  the  Indies  and  later  of 
ministerial  decrees.  Nor  was  there  precedent  for  a  native 
legislature  in  the  colonial  governments  worked  out  by 
England,  France,  and  other  colonial  powers.  The  "legis- 
lative councils "  of  the  British  Crown  Colonies  contain 
members  appointed  from  the  natives  of  the  locality,  but 
these  representatives  never  constitute  a  separate  body,  are 
always  in  the  minority,  and,  if  elected  and  not  appointed 
by  the  government,  are  chosen  as  representatives  of  partic- 
ular interests.  The  principle  of  popular  representation 
has  been  considered  a  dangerous  and  improper  one  to  ap- 
ply to  the  governance  of  tropical  colonies.^  But  in  many 
particulars  Americans  in  the  Philippines  had  preferred 
more  liberal  policies  than  those  sanctioned  by  colonial 
experience  elsewhere.  The  political  ambitions  of  the 
Filipinos  had  seemed  legitimate  and  promising.  The 
Schurman  Commission  of  1900  proposed  a  legislature  of 
two  chambers  on  the  model  of  an  American  territorial 
legislature.  The  Taft  Commission  in  its  early  reports 
outlined  a  plan  of  government  to  consist  of  an  upper 
honse  of  appointed  members,  partly  official  and  partly 
non-official,  with  the  chief  executive  of  the  islands  as  pres- 
ident, and  a  lower  house  elected  by  restricted  suffrage. 
The  creation  of  a  Filipino  assembly  was  urged  by 
Mr.  Taft  at  the  time  of  his  appearance  before  Congress 
in  the  winter  and   spring  of    1902.     Republicans  in  the 


1  See  several  criticisms  of  the  American  plan  by  Professor  Reinsch,  Pro- 
ceedinys  of  the  American  Political  Science  Association,  1904,  and 
"Municipal  Government  in  the  Philippines,"  Nat.  Conf.  City  Govt., 
1903,  pp.  194-201  ;  Mr.  AUeyne  Ireland,  Outlook,  vol .  78  ;  Mr.  John  For- 
man.  Contemporary  Review,  vols.  86  and  91  ;  Mr.  Hugh  Clifford,  Living 
Age,  251. 


38  THE   PHILIPPINES. 

House  generally  supported  the  project,  but  the  Senate  was 
more  conservative.^ 

The  two  houses  of  Congress  compromised  by  providing 
for  an  assembly,  but  deferring  its  inauguration  until  two 
years  after  the  taking  of  a  census  of  the  islands  and  sub- 
ject to  a  condition  of  peace  and  order  to  be  determined  by 
the  President  of  the  United  States.  The  law  further  pro- 
vided that  the  Philippines  should  be  represented  after  the 
manner  of  American  territories  by  two  resident  commis- 
sioners at  Washington  with  seats  in  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, but  without  votes. 

One  feature  of  the  proposed  assembly  deserves  special 
mention.  The  two  houses  of  the  legislature,  namely  the 
appointed  commission  and  the  elected  assembly,  were  to 
have  co-ordinate  legislative  powers.  Bills  could  be  intro- 
duced in  either  body  and  the  consent  of  both  bodies  was 
necessary  in  order  that  any  bill  become  a  law.  The  his- 
tory of  two-chamber  legislatures  has  usually  been  that  the 
more  popular  house  has  acquired  control  of  the  govern- 
ment through  refusal  to  vote  supplies.  It  was  not  the 
wish  of  the  framers  of  the  Philippine  assembly  law  that 
this  body,  when  created,  should  be  able  in  the  historical 
manner  to  coerce  the  Commission.  Consequently  it  was 
provided  that  in  the  event  of  the  two  houses  being  unable 
to  agree  upon  appropriations,  the  budget  of  the  preceding 
fiscal  period  would  remain  in  force,  the  definite  sums  ap- 
propriated for  specific  purposes  being  considered  reappro- 
priated  for  the  ensuing  period.     This  curious  device  seems 


1  Interesting  light  upon  the  history  of  this  measure  is  afforded  by  Mr. 
Taf  t's  speech  at  the  inauguration  of  the  Assembly  and  by  ah  address  of 
Senator  Beveridge  (  who  in  Congress  opposed  the  grant  of  an  assembly) 
at  the  meeting  of  the  American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Sciences 
In  Philadelphia  in  1907. 


A  DECADE   OF  AMERICAN  GOVERNMENT.  39 

to  have  been  borrowed  from  the  Constitution  of  Japan^  in 
which  it  was  presumably  inserted  by  the  great  constitu- 
tion maker  Prince  Ito.  It  may  be  further  presumed  that 
Ito  derived  the  idea  from  the  experience  of  Bismarck  and 
the  Prussian  Diet.^ 

The  Philippine  Census.  —  The  insurrection  was  reported 
officially  to  be  at  an  end  September  8,  1902.  The  census 
was  organized  by  an  army  officer,  General  J.  P.  Sanger, 
who  had  taken  the  census  of  Cuba,  assisted  by  Mr.  Henry 
Gannett  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey,  and  Mr. 
Victor  Olmsted  of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics.  The  census 
was  taken  during  the  year  1903,  largely  through  employ- 
ment of  local  officials.  It  was  proclaimed  and  published 
March  27,  1905.  It  showed  the  total  population  of  the 
archipelago  to  be  7,635,426  of  whom  6,987,686  were 
Christian  peoples.^  The  law  establishing  the  Assembly 
restricted  its  jurisdiction  to  those  parts  of  the  islands  not 
inhabited  by  Mohammedans  and  pagan  peoples,  and  thus 
the  Christian  provinces  alone  were  entitled  to  choose  rep- 
resentatives. The  census  determined  with  approximate 
exactness  the  population  of  each  province,  municipality, 
and  barrio  in  the  islands  and  afforded  a  basis  for  the  dis- 
tribution of  representation  to  a  popularly  elected  legisla- 
ture. Two  years  after  the  proclamation  of  the  census  the 
election  was  proclaimed,  the  date  being  set  for  July  30, 
1907. 


•  See  Japanese  Constitution,  article  LXXI. 

*  It  may  be  noted  further  that  the  provision  has  been  introduced 
also  into  the  constitution  of  the  island  of  Porto  Rico,  since  a  deadlock 
between  the  upper  and  lower  chambers  of  the  legislature  of  that  Amer- 
ican possession. 

'  The  Census  of  the  Philippines,  4  vols.   Washington,  1905. 


40  THE   PHILIPPINES. 

Qualifications  of  Electors.  —  In  anticipation  of  the  elec- 
tions for  the  Assembly  tlie  Commission  had  on  January  9, 
1907,  enacted  a  new  election  law  (Act  No.  1582)  which 
divided  the  Christian  provinces  into  78  assembly  districts 
with  two  additional  districts  for  Manila.  The  law  pro- 
vided a  non-partisan  board  of  inspectors  in  each  munici- 
paUty  and  an  official  secret  ballot,  and  penalized  corrupt 
practices.  The  conditions  of  suffrage  remained  as  origi- 
nally provided  in  the  Municipal  Act  of  1901,i  which  had 
followed  somewhat  the  provisions  of  the  "  Maura  Law  " 
proclaimed  by  the  Spanish  government  in  1893.  Voters 
were  restricted  to  male  persons  twenty-three  years  of  age, 
not  subjects  of  any  other  power,  with  a  residence  of  six 
months  in  their  district,  who,  prior  to  August  13,  1898, 
had  held  local  office,  or  who  owned  real  property  to  the 
value  of  five  hundred  pesos,  or  who  could  speak,  read, 
and  write  either  the  English  or  Spanish  language.  The 
total  number  of  voters  registered  for  the  election  of  the 
Philippine  Assembly  of  1907  was  104,966.  Of  these 
84,227  declared  themselves  Nacionalistas  and  24,234 
Progresistas.2 


1  Act  82  Philippine  Commission,  enacted  January  31. 

2  In  the  election  of  November  2,  1909,  the  registration  was  almost 
double  that  of  July,  1907,  amounting  to  208,845,  and  92.40  per  cent, 
of  the  registered  electors  voted.  Incomplete  returns  made  at  the  date 
of  the  report  of  the  Executive  Secretary  for  1912  showed  the  registra- 
tion for  that  year  249,805,  of  whom  61,805  exercised  the  suffrage  by 
reason  of  having  held  office,  60,533  through  property  qualifications,  and 
81,916  by  the  possession  of  educational  qualifications.  This  total  regis- 
tration was  equal  to  3|  per  cent,  of  the  census  population  and  showed 
that  the  proportion  of  literate  voters  to  the  population  was  1.47  per 
cent. 


A    DECADE   OF  AMERICAN  GOVERNMENT. 


41 


The  first  Assembly  in  session. 

The  First  Session  of  the  Assembly.  —  The  resirit  of  the 
election  of  1907  and  of  both  subsequent  elections  was  to 
indicate  a  large  preponderance  of  Nationalist  strength. 
Election  to  this  first  Assembly  was  greatly  coveted. 
Unusual  efforts  were  made  by  candidates.  The  Election 
Law,  following  a  doubtful  American  practice,  required 
delegates  to  be  "  residents  "  of  the  districts  choosing  them. 
This  provision  caused  a  general  exodus  of  politicians  from 
Manila  to  the  provinces.  Mr.  Taft,  the  Secretary  of 
War,  who  had  been  so  largely  responsible  for  the  creation 
of  the  Assembly,  came  to  the  islands  for  its  inaugura- 
tion. He  and  his  party  arrived  in  Manila  October  15, 
1907,  and  on  the  following  morning  at  nine  o'clock  the 
inauguration  took  place  in  the  Grand  Opera  House. 
The  provisions  of  the  law  and  of  executive  orders  were 


42  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

read,  addresses  were  made  by  Governor-General  Smith 
and  Secretary  Taft,  prayer  was  offered  by  Bishop  Barlin 
of  Nueva  Caceres,  the  roll  of  delegates  was  called  and  the 
Assembly  declared  opened.  The  meeting  adjourned  to 
meet  at  the  Ayuntamiento  in  the  afternoon.  In  this  latter 
meeting  Mr.  Osmeiia  was  chosen  "  speaker "  and  an 
organization  begun.  In  the  first  days  of  the  session 
rules  were  adopted,  connnittees  formed,  and  a  procedure 
developed.  A  considerable  number  of  bills  had  been  pre- 
pared by  different  members  and  were  soon  introduced. 
The  first  to  be  passed  was  the  "  Gabaldon  Act "  providing 
a  million  pesos  for  building  barrio  schools.  The  inau- 
gural session  was  followed  by  the  "  first  session  "  and  that 
by  a  "  special  session,"  the  legislature  finally  adjourning 
June  19,  1908.  The  second  session  of  the  First  Legis- 
lature was  held  February  1  to  May  20,  1909.  Sixty-nine 
bills  passed  both  bodies  and  became  laws.^  About  half 
of  those  which  passed  the  Assembly  and  a  number 
which  passed  the  Commission  failed  to  pass  both  houses. 
Several  bills  were  enacted  after  "  conference  committees" 
had  dicussed  them.  During  the  same  period  the  Com- 
mission enacted  six  laws  for  the  government  of  non- 
Christian  peoples. 

A  general  appropriation  bill  was  among  those  enacted. 
The  preparation  of  a  budget  is  properly  an  executive 
matter,  and  for  some  years  the  regular  annual  budget  had 
been  prepared  in  the  office  of  the  Executive  Secretary  for 
submission  to  the  Commission.  The  American  Congress, 
however,  has  always  pi-epared    the  appropriation  bill    in 


1  Among  these  were  bills  establishing  a  Bureau  of  Labor  (Act  1868), 
creating  the  University  of  the  Philippines  (Act  1870),  and  providing 
general  appropriations  for  the  govern in«ut  (Act  1873). 


A    DECADE    OF  AMERICAN   GOVERNMENT. 


43 


'^  -A-'   ^ 


the  House  Conimittee  on  Ways  uiul  Means  without  the 
aid  of  an  executive  budget.  Unfortunately  and  unscien- 
tifically this  example  influenced  the  Commission  to  turn 
this  function  over  to  the  Assembly. 

On  the  whole  the  attitude  of  the  first  legislature  was 
commendably  prudent  and  conservative  and  relations  be- 
tween Commission  and  Assembly  were  harmonious  and 

helpful,    much    being 
,  ^-^  due  to  the  tact  and  in- 

fluence of  the  Govern- 
or-General. Toward 
the  end  of  the  first  ses- 
sion strong  influence 
was  exerted  to  pass 
through  the  Assembly 
a  resolution  calling  up- 
on Congress  to  grant 
independence.  Many 
delegates  had  been 
elected  on  the  promise 
of  securing  such  ac- 
tion. The  resolution 
was  not  passed,  but  in 
a  rather  singular  nian- 
Hon.  Sergio  osmena.  n^'»'   endorsement  was 

given  to  the  policy  of  independence  by  a  vote  approving 
the  sentiment  of  an  address  to  the  Assembly  made  by 
Speaker  Osmena  in  which  was  asserted  the  capacity  of  the 
Filipinos  for  self  government.  The  most  dramatic  feature 
of  the  session  was  the  prolonged  but  unsuccessful  effort  of 
Dr.  Dominador  (iomez  to  secure  a  seat.  The  Assembly 
finally  voted  him  to  be  ineligible  to  election. 


44  THE   PHILIPPINES. 

The  first  legislature  chose  as  Resident  Commissioners  at 
Washington,  Mr.  Benito  Legarda  of  the  Commission  and 
Mr.  Pablo  Ocampo  de  Leon.  In  1909,  Mr.  Legarda  and 
Mr.  Manuel  Queson  of  the  Assembly  were  chosen  Resi- 
dent Commissioners  by  unanimous  vote  of  both  houses 
sitting  separately.  In  1913  the  Resident  Commissioners 
were  Mr.  Queson  and  Mr.  Manuel  Earnshaw,  a  manufac- 
turer of  Manila.  1 

The  Second  Session  of  the  Assembly.  —  The  Second  As- 
sembly, chosen  in  1909,  showed  a  still  larger  Nationalist 
preponderance.  Some  of  the  most  prominent  members  of 
the  preceding  legislature  were  not  re-elected.  The  Second 
Legislature  held  a  special  session  March  28  to  Apiil  19, 
1910 ;  a  first  session  October  17,  1910,  to  February  3, 
1911;  a  second  session  October  16,  1911,  to  February  1, 
1912;  and  a  final  special  session  February  2  to  February 
6,  1912,  Congress  by  Act  of  February  27,  1909,  having 
changed  the  law  so  as  to  provide  a  four-year  term.  This 
Assembly  was  more  radical  than  the  first.  The  number 
of  disagreements  with  the  Commission  over  legislation  was 
large.  Many  measures  failed  to  pass  more  than  one  body. 
The  effort  to  pass  an  appropriation  bill  failed  at  each  ses- 
sion and  the  budget  of  1908  continued  to  be  the  current 
appropriation.  Among  Assembly  measures  rejected  by 
the  Commission  were  bills  repealing  the  treason  and  se- 
dition act,  the  "  bandolerismo  act,"  the  "flag  act"  and  the 
race-track  law ;  to  abolish  the  death  penalty ;  to  suppress 


1  Materials  for  the  study  of  the  Philippine  Legislature  are  found  in 
the  Journal  of  The  Philippine  Commission,  vols.  I  to  VI,  Manila,  1008 
to  1913;  Diario  de  Sesiones  de  la  Asemblea  Fllipina,  vols.  I  to  VII,  and 
in  the  Laws  and  Resolutions  of  the  Philippine  Legislature,  commencing 
with  vol.  VH. 


A    DECADE   OF  AMERICAN  GOVERNMENT.  45 

the  Civil  Service  Bureau ;  bills  to  extend  the  powers  of 
local  governments,  and  numerous  bills  carrying  appropria- 
tions of  money.  The  two  houses  were  unable  to  agree 
upon  the  choice  of  Resident  Commissioners  to  Washing- 
ton, for  the  term  commencing  March  4,  1911.  Congress 
by  Act  of  February  15,  1911,  provided  that  incumbents 
should  hold  office  until  their  successors  were  chosen.  On 
December  10, 1910,  the  Assembly  passed  a  joint  resolution 
requesting  Congress  to  accord  the  Filipino  people  the 
right  to  frame  and  adopt  a  constitution  of  their  own  for 
the  Archipelago.  The  Commission,  by  a  nearly  unanimous 
vote,  laid  tliis  resolution  on  the  table.  ^ 

Changes  in  the  Commission.  —  Meanwhile  the  Philippine 
Commission  had  undergone  many  changes.  Congress  by 
Act  of  May  12,  1908,  increased  the  number  of  membei-s 
to  nine  and  authorized  the  President  to  increase  by  one 
the  number  of  secretaryships.  On  July  1,  1908,  Mr. 
Forbes  was  apjiointed  Vice-Governor-General  and  Mr. 
Gregorio  Araneta,  the  attorney -general.  Secretary  of  Fi- 
nance and  Justice,  this  position  having  been  vacant  since 
the  appointment  of  ]VIr.  Ide  as  Governor-General  in  1900. 
Judge  Newton  W.  Gill^ert,  who  for  several  years  had  been 
judge-at-large  of  the  court  of  first  instance,  and  Mr.  Rafael 
Palma,  a  member  of  the  Assembly  from  Cavite,  were  ai> 
pointed  commissioners.  Early  in  1909  Secretary  Shuster 
returned  to  the  United  States,  his  resignation  being  ac- 
cepted on  March  1,  and  Mr.  Gilbert  succeeded  him  as 
Secretary  of  Public  Instruction.  On  the  same  date  was 
accepted  the  resignation  of  Dr.  Pardo  de  Tavera,  and 
Judge  Juan  Sumulong  of  Rizal  province  was  appointed  to 


1  See  Commission  Journal,  No.  4,  pp.  267,  340-47. 


46 


THE   PHILIPPINES. 


succeed  him.  Air.  Frank  A.  Branagan,  the  insular  treas- 
urer, was  appointed  commissioner  on  March  4.  In  May 
Governor-General  Smith  retired,  to  be  succeeded  by  Mr. 
Forbes ;  and  a  little  later  Mr.  Charles  B.  Elliott  of  Michi- 
gan was  appointed  Secretary  of  Commerce  and  Police. 
Thus  only  two  members.  Secretary  Worcester  and  Mr. 
Luzuriaga,  remained  of  the  eight  who  had  begun  the  no- 
table work  of  government  and  legislation  in  1901. 

Administration  of  Governor-General  Forbes.  —  Governor- 
General  Forbes  was  exceedingly  interested  in  the  indus- 
trial and  economic  sides  of  the  Philippine  problem.     He 

inclined  to  the  view 
expressed  by  many 
students  of  colonial 
government,  that  edu- 
cation and  political 
participation  should 
wait  upon  economic 
development.  He  in- 
sisted upon  curtailing 
the  program  for  the 
general  education  of 
the  people.  In  public 
addresses  he  coun- 
selled the  Filipinos  to 
devote  less  thought  to 
politics  and  more  to 
private  business.  In 
view,  however,  of  the 
Governor-General  Forbes.  g^eat  eagerness  of  Fil- 

ipinos for  education,  their  surprising  ability  to  advance 
themselves  as  soon  as  their  ignorance  is  relieved,  and  their 


A    DECADE   OF  AMERICAN   GOVERNMENT.  47 

intense  preoccupation  in  the  political  future  of  their  coun- 
try, it  seems  idle  to  urge  them  to  diminish  their  interest 
in  the  intellectual  and  political  advance  of  their  race  and 
unstatesmanlike  not  to  recognize  that  the  problems  of 
consummate  dillficulty  in  the  Philippines  will  continue  to 
be  political  in  character. 

Both  as  Secretary  of  Commerce  and  Police  and  as  Gov- 
ernor-General, j\Ir.  Forbes  secured  the  devotion  of  many 
millions  of  dollars  to  public  improvements,  including  the 
Benguet  Road,  the  "  summer  capital "  at  Baguio,  and  a 
great  program  of  highways.  Some  of  these  works  may 
never  be  fully  justified  by  the  use  given  them  by  a  popula- 
tion living  mainly  on  the  coasts  and  largely  deprived  of 
vehicles  and  draft  animals,  but  other  improvements  origi- 
nated or  advanced  by  Mr.  Forbes  are  of  demonstrated  bene- 
fit. Such  are  the  port  works  of  Manila,  Iloilo,  and  Cebu, 
artesian  wells  furnishing  pure  drinking  water  to  hundreds 
of  municipalities,  and  the  use  of  reinforced  concrete  for 
the  public  buildings  of  the  islands. 

Congressional  Investigation  of  the  Friar  Lands.  —  Since 
the  heated  debates  of  Congress  in  the  spring  of  1902,  the 
question  of  the  Philippines  has  seldom  been  treated  in  a 
partisan  manner  and  Congress  had  exhibited  every  mark 
of  confidence  in  the  integrity  of  the  government  in  the 
Philippines.  In  1910,  however,  charges  were  made  by 
Representative  John  A.  Martin  of  Colorado  that  friar 
lands  had  been  illegally  and  corruptly  disposed  of.  On 
June  25,  1910,  the  House  by  resolution  ordered  an  investi- 
gation. In  November,  Secretary  Worcester  and  other  of- 
ficials concerned  went  to  Washington  and  appeared  before 
the  committee.  The  charges  of  malfeasance  appear  to 
have  been    very  recklessly  made  and    were  entirely   dis- 


■.,L. 


48  TBE  PHILIPPINES. 

proved.  Nor  had  lands  been  disposed  of  in  a  manner  con- 
trary to  the  law.  Congress  in  legislating  in  1902  had 
provided  that  grants  from  the  national  domain  in  the 
Philippines  should  be  in  the  form  of  homesteads  of  not 
more  than  16  hectares  to  an  individual  nor  more  than 
1000  hectares  to  a  single  corporation.  The  Commission  in 
disposing  of  the  friar  lands  had  not  felt  bound  by  these 
limitations.  The  Philippine  public  domain  was  property 
of  the  United  States  and  subject  to  disposal  under  such 
conditions  as  Congress  had  determined,  but  the  friar  lands 
were  entirely  distinct  and  were  the  possession  of  the  Phil- 
ippines government.  Several  large  tracts  were  leased  to 
single  individuals,  including  an  official,  and  the  Mindoro 
estate  was  sold  to  an  American  sugar  corporation.  If 
made  generally,  these  large  disposals  would  be  inimical  to 
the  policy  of  developing  small  landowners,  but  the  situa- 
tion of  the  Mindoro  estate  on  an  uninhabited  and  undevel- 
oped coast  strongly  recommended  its  sale  to  a  corporation 
with  resources  sufficient  to  develop  it  and  encourage  the 
settlement  of  that  island.  In  view  of  the  criticism  which 
the  sale  or  lease  of  large  tracts  had  awakened,  the  adminis- 
tration at  Washington  instructed  the  Philippines  govern- 
ment to  seek  only  small  lessees  and  occupants.  The  policy 
of  the  United  States  to  open  the  public  lands  of  the  Philip- 
pines to  homesteaders  has  never  been  successfully  carried 
out  by  the  Philippine  government.  The  population  is  not 
naturally  migratory  and  its  ignorance  and  helplessness  has 
pi-evented  the  general  pre-emption  of  vacant  lands.  It 
may  be  questioned  whether  the  efforts  of  the  government 
to  settle  the  public  domain  by  Filipino  homesteaders  have 
been  adequate  and  intelligent  and  whether  the  proper  pol- 
icy for  the  government  would  not  be  to  adopt  a  more  pa- 


A    DECADE    OF  AMERICAN  GOVERNMENT.  49 

teruiil  attitude,  lease  lands  to  tenants,  in  necessary  cases 
supply  certain  improvements,  and  retain  the  title  in  the 
government. 

Agricultural  Prosperity.  —  Industrial  conditions  were 
greatly  benefited  by  the  passage  of  the  Payne  Tariff  Act, 
October  6,  1909.  Since  the  acquisition  of  the  islands 
Congress  had  steadily  refused  to  admit  their  products  to 
the  markets  of  the  United  States  free  of  duties.  Philii> 
pine  sugar  and  tobacco  had  sought  markets  elsewhere 
without  success.  The  copra  had  largely  gone  to  France. 
Hemp  had  been  injured  by  the  competition  of  the  henne- 
quin  of  Yucatan.  After  years  of  effoit,  however.  President 
Taft  succeeded  in  securing  practical  free  admission  of  Phil- 
ippine products.^  The  effect  on  Philippine  agriculture 
was  immediate.  The  area  of  cultivated  land  in  Occidental 
Negros  increased  about  50  per  cent,  in  the  yeai-.  Prices 
rose  for  the  tobacco  growers  in  the  Kagayan.  Business 
felt  the  effect  and  both  exports  and  imports  were  stimu- 
lated. Tiie  total  foreign  trade  of  the  Philippines  for  the 
fiscal  year  1912  was  -f  104,869,816,  of  which  40  per  cent, 
was  Avith  the  United  States.  The  partial^  suppression  of 
the  rinderpest  which  had  destroyed  the  herds  of.  tlie  islands 
in  1902  and  had  since  been  endemic,  was  secured  by  the 
use  of  general  and  local  quarantine.  In  1911  it  was  be- 
lieved the  carabaos  had  increased  to  over  1,000,000,  while 
the  loss  from  animal  plague  had  been  reduced  to  approxi- 
mately 3,000  per  annum. 

Tropical  agriculture,  while  rewarding  under  good  con- 
ditions, is  peculiarly  subject  to  losses.     Plant  and  animal 


1  Rice  is  excepted,  and  the  amounts  of  sugar  and  tobacco  are 
limited.  The  Phihppmes,  however,  have  exported  no  rice  for  many  de- 
cades and  m  1011  sugar  .shipments  to  the  United  States  reached  only  55 
per  cent,  of  the  tree  limit  and  cigars  46  per  cent. 


50  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

diseases,  fluctuations  of  prices  and  instability  of  markets, 
unite  with  uncertain  conditions  of  labor  to  produce  dis- 
couragement. To  all  these  difficulties  the  Philippine  gov- 
ernment has  given  much  attention,  seeking  to  destroy  pests, 
introduce  new  crops,  and  improve  methods  of  farming. 
The  condition  of  the  agriculturist  diffei-s  much  in  different 
parts  as  well  as  the  rate  of  wages  and  the  standard  of  liv- 
ing. In  the  hemp  regions  wages  are  high.  In  certain 
provinces  there  are  many  small  landowners  or  peasant  pro- 
prietors ;  in  others  the  land  forms  large  estates  or  "  hacien- 
das" and  the  cultivator  is  a  tenant  or  laborer.  One  of  the 
foremost  aims  of  the  work  of  education  has  been  to  in- 
crease and  enlighten  the  class  of  small  farmers. 

Damage  from  Typhoons.  —  From  one  great  source  of 
loss,  however,  no  protection  suffices,  and  this  is  the  annual 
injury  done  by  typhoons.  The  situation  with  respect  to 
these  hurricanes  is  peculiar.  The  fertile  East  Indies  to  the 
south  are  entirely  spared.  Occasionally  the  coasts  of  Indo- 
China  and  southern  China  are  visited  and  Japan  frequently 
suffers,  but  the  Philippines  lie  immediately  in  the  path  of 
these  cyclonic  movements  and  each  year  the  loss  mounis 
into  the  millions.  The  Weather  Bureau  with  its  service 
of  skilled  Jesuit  observers  furnishes  warnings  of  these 
storms  and  yet  the  loss  of  life  is  sometimes  great.  In 
1905  the  "  Cantabria  typhoon  "  sunk  the  coasting  steamer 
of  that  name  with  the  loss  of  all  on  board  and  the  coast- 
guard cutter  "  Leyte  "  with  loss  of  all  but  two.  In  1906 
no  less  than  four  "  first  class  "  typhoons  swept  different  sec- 
tions of  the  archipelago,  and  in  Kagayan  the  loss  to  human 
life  was  very  large.  In  1912  a  most  disastrous  typhoon 
swept  the  city  of  Cebu  and  is  believed  to  have  occasioned 
the  death  of  a  thousand  people.     In  estimating  the  relative 


A   DECADE   OF  AMERICAN  GOVERNMENT  61 

backwardness  of  certain  improvements  in  the  Philippines 
allowance  must  be  made  not  only  for  the  rapidity  of  decay 
but  tor  the  persistent  destruction  of  these  storms. 

The  Taal  Disaster The  Philippiiies  are  of  volcanic 

formation.  Activity  has  diminished  in  historic  times  and 
losses  from  eruption  and  earthquake  are  seemingly  less 
than  in  earlier  centuries.  There  are,  however,  no  less  than 
twelve  volcanoes  still  more  or  less  active.  Of  these  the 
most  notable  is  Mayon,  which  was  in  eruption  at  least 
twenty-five  times  in  the  nineteenth  century,  and  next  in 
activity  is  Taal.  In  1754  this  volcano  erupted  with  vio- 
lence and  destroyed  the  towns  of  Taal,  Lipa  and  Tanawan 
which  at  that  time  were  built  on  the  shores  of  the  lake  in 
the  midst  of  which  the  volcano  rises.  From  that  date, 
while  constantly  active  and  an  object  of  great  interest, 
Taal  volcano  inflicted  no  damage  until  the  night  of  Jan- 
uary 30,  1911,  when  after  some  hours  of  premonitory 
quaking  and  exploding  it  suddenly  erupted  with  terrific 
force,  emitting  deadly  blasts  of  gas  and  dropping  masses 
of  scalding  mud  for  miles  southward.  The  light  of  incan- 
descent gases  was  witnessed  at  Manila  40  miles  away,  and 
tlie  explosion  was  heard  at  Dagupan,  160  miles  distant. 
Numbers  of  villages  about  the  lake  were  utterly  destroyed 
and  at  least  1300  people  perished.  The  extent  of  the  trag- 
edy was  not  at  first  appreciated  at  Manda,  until  adventur- 
ous officials  traversed  the  locality  and  discovered  hun- 
dreds of  half  buried  bodies  among  the  rmned  villages. 
Then  relief  forces  were  sent,  including  constabulary  and 
Red  Cross  representatives,  and  attention  was  given  to  such 
injured  as  survived.  The  following  year  the  government 
established  a  seismological  station  on  the  shore  of  the  lake 
to  observe  future  phenomena  and  give  warning  of  danger. 


62  THE   PHILIPPINES. 

Visit  of  Secretary  Dickinson — Between  July  and  Octo- 
ber, 1910,  the  Philippines  were  visited  by  the  Secretary 
of  War  in  Mr.  Taft's  Cabinet,  Hon.  J.  M.  Dickinson.  Dur- 
ing his  stay  a  lengthy  address  was  presented  to  him  by 
the  Nationalist  Party,  reviewing  the  question  of  the  ca- 
pacity of  the  Filipinos  for  independence.  A  joint  memo- 
randum from  both  political  parties  was  also  presented  to 
him  in  which  certain  "  reforms  "  were  asked.  These  in- 
cluded the  repeal  of  limitations  on  the  legislature,  the  "  sepa- 
ration of  powere  "  in  the  Commission,  an  elective  Senate, 
and  especially  the  extension  of  the  Assembly's  jurisdiction 
to  those  considerable  portions  of  the  Archipelago  inhabited 
by  pagan  and  Mohammedan  peoples  which  were  governed 
exclusively  by  the  Commission.  ^ 

The  Non-Christian  Peoples.  —  The  problem  of  the  non- 
Christian  peoples  is  one  of  the  most  serious  obstacles  to 
those  advocating  an  early  independence  for  the  Philippines. 
The  events  of  recent  years,  the  revolution  against  Spain, 
the  insurrection  against  American  authority,  and  espe- 
cially the  efforts  of  the  government  to  unite  the  Filipinos 
by  education  in  a  common  language  and  by  training  under 
common  liberal  institutions  have  gone  far  toward  making 
the  ten  or  eleven  distinct  Christian  peoples  a  single  nation. 
But  the  pagan  peoples  form  an  unassimilated  stock,  and 
between  Christian  and  Moro  persists  the  enmity  left  by 
centuries  of  piracy  and  war.  Congress  in  providing  a 
Philippine  Assembly  judged  that  these  peoples  should  prop- 
erly have  no  representation,  while  the  principle  of  self  gov- 
ernment for  Filipinos  did  not  necessitate  subjecting  the 
non-Christian  peoples  to  the  legislation  of  the  Christian. 


1  See  report  of  J.  W.  Dickinson,  Secretary  of  War,  to  the  President 
on  tlie  Philippines,  Wasliington  1910,  Appendices  B  and  C. 


A   DECADE   OF  AMERICAN  GOVERNMENT.  53 

The  results  of  American  effort  in  behalf  of  the  pagan  peo- 
ples would  appear  to  justify  leaving  them  to  the  exclusive 
jurisdiction  of  the  Commission.  Late  in  1901  the  Com- 
mission created  the  Bureau  of  Non-Christian  Tribes  to 
make  a  general  exploration  of  those  portions  of  the  islands 
inhabited  by  these  peoples,  investigate  their  character  and 
condition,  and  recommend  legislation  for  their  government. 
A  preliminary  reconnaissance  of  the  pagan  and  ^lohamme- 
dan  peoples  was  completed  by  officers  of  tliis  bureau  in 
about  two  years.  Several  provincial  governments  of  a 
special  type  with  appointed  officials  were  organized.  The 
Reorganization  Act  placed  all  these  regions  mider  the  spe- 
cial administrative  oversight  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Inte- 
rior and  from  this  time  gratifying  progress  was  made.  In 
the  great  (Jordillera  Central  of  northern  Luzon,  inhabited 
by  several  hundred  thousand  Igorot,  relations  between 
Americans  and  mountaineers  were  exceptionally  friendly. 
Trails  were  built,  headhunting  abated,  and  schools  founded. 
In  August,  1908,  by  Act  No.  1876  the  government  of 
this  region  was  consolidated  in  one  jurisdiction  known  as 
the  Mountain  Province,  with  seven  sub-provinces,  Benguet, 
Amburayan,  Lepanto,  Bontok,  Ifugao,  Kalinga,  and  Apa- 
yao.  The  capital  was  placed  at  the  large  native  town  of 
Bontok  in  the  heart  of  the  Cordillera.  Other  provinces 
under  the  special  administration  of  the  Commission  were 
Nueva  Vizcaya,  where  the  Christian  inhabitants  are  few; 
Mindoro,  with  an  unexplored  interior  inhabited  only  by 
forest  Mangyan,  and  Palawan,  where  the  Christian  popu- 
lation is  confined  to  the  small  islands  of  Kuyo  and  little 
settlements  elsewhere.  In  August,  1907,  the  lower  and 
middle  valley  of  the  Agusan  river  and  the  interior  of  the 
province  of    Misamis,  as  far  south  as  the  eighth  parallel 


54 


THE  PHILIPPINES. 


of  latitude,  were  separated  from  the  Christian  provinces  of 
Surigao  and  Misamis  and  formed  into  a  non-Christian  j)rov- 

ince  called  Agusan 
with  two  sub-provin- 
ces, Butuan  and  Bu- 
kidnon.i  The  inhabi- 
tants of  these  regions 
of  Mindanao  are  all 
pagan  forest  people, 
Manobo,  Mandaya, 
and  Bukidnon.  They 
had  been  entirely  neg- 
lected by  the  pro- 
vincial authorities  and 
were  in  need  of  gov- 
ernment and  of  pro- 
tection from  the  ex- 
ploitation of  traders 
from  the  coast.  The 
work  accomplished  in 
all  these  regions  for 
the  civilization  and  well  being  of  the  natives  is  one  of  the 
most  interesting  and  commendable  features  of  American 
government  in  the  islands.^ 

The  Moros.  —  If  the  reasons  for  not  placing  the  pagan 
peoples  under  the  government  of  Filipinos  were  valid, 
they  would  seem  to  be  doubly  so  in  the  case  of  Moros. 
By  historical  and  religious  ties  the  peoples  of  southern 

1  Act  1693. 

-  See  the  reports  of  the  Secretary  of  Interior  for  years  1908  to  1913 
inclusive.  Also  several  remarkably  illustrated  articles  by  Mr.  Worcester 
in  the  National  Geographic  Magazine  for  March,  1911,  September,1912, 
and  November,  1913. 


Hon.  Dean  C.  Worcester,  Secretary  of  the 
Interior,  1900-1913. 


A    DECADE    OF  AMERICAN  GOVERNMENT.  55 

Mindanao  and  the  Sulu  archipelago  are  connected  not 
with  the  northern  inliabitants  of  the  Philippines  but  with 
the  Mohammedan  Malays  to  the  south.  The  Sultan  of 
Sulu  is  nominal  sovereign  of  North  Borneo.  As  in  the 
rest  of  the  East  Indies,  trade  connections  are  with  Singa- 
pore rather  than  Manila.  The  long  piratical  wars  of  the 
Spaniards  with  the  Sultanates  of  Magindanao  and  Sulu 
left  tlie  Moros  still  the  aggressors  until  the  middle  of  the 
last  century.  The  arrival  of  steam  gunboats  and  the  de- 
struction of  the  Samal  pirates  in  1848  freed  the  Philij)- 
pines  from  the  raids  of  the  corsairs,  but  Spain's  authority 
was  not  fully  asserted  even  at  the  end  of  her  rule.  In 
1860  a  royal  decree  established  the  politico-military  gov- 
erinnent  of  Mindanao.  The  town  of  Jolo  was  captured 
by  the  Spaniards  in  1876  and  two  years  later  the  Sulu 
archijjelago  was  added  to  the  above  jurisdiction.  The 
Treaty  of  1878  with  the  Sultan  of  Sulu  was  the  final  ex- 
pression of  relation  with  Spain.  It  left  the  Sultanate  in 
the  position  of  a  protectorate  rather  than  a  dependent 
state.^  Spain's  sovereignty  over  this  archipelago  was 
questioned  by  England  and  Germany,  but  in  1882  she 
made  her  authority  effective  by  placing  garrisons  on 
Bongao,  Siasi,  and  Tawitawi. 

The  subjugation  of  Mindanao  was  no  less  difficult. 
War  was  waged  against  Datu  Utu  in  the  Rio  Pulangi 
valley  in  1887,  and  in  1888  Weyler  began  an  invasion  of 
the  Lanao  region  which  established  the  Spaniards  at 
IVIarawi  but  left  unsubjugated  the  lake  basin.  Such  were 
the  conditions  when  in  May,  1899,  the  Spaniards  evacua- 
ted and  American  garrisons  took  their  places  at  Sambo- 


i  See  Saleeby,  History  of  Sulu,  for  history  of  relations  aud  texts. 


66  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

anga,  Jolo,  and  Cotabato.  The  situation  was  a  difficult 
one  for  the  Americans.  The  Filipino  insurrection  which 
had  broken  out  employed  the  bulk  of  their  forces.  Every 
consideration  recommended  an  avoidance  of  trouble  with 
the  Moros.  Under  instructions  from  the  commanding 
general,  a  treaty  was  negotiated  with  the  Sultan  of  Sulu 
by  Gen.  J.  C.  Bates  somewhat  after  the  form  of  the  Span- 
ish treaty  of  1878.  Owing  to  imperfections  of  transla- 
tion, however,  both  sides  gained  an  erroneous  idea  of  what 
had  been  conceded. ^ 

This  was  the  situation  until  1903.  Fighting  with 
the  Moros  was  avoided  except  for  an  expedition  which 
penetrated  to  Lake  Lanao  from  the  south  coast  and  estab- 
lished an  American  post  on  the  south  side  of  the  lake. 
American  garrisons  occupied  important  points  and  naval 
detachments  Isabela  de  Basilan  and  PoUok,  but  there  was 
little  interference  with  native  affairs  outside  of  these 
stations.  Conditions  throughout  the  Moro  country,  how- 
ever, were  most  unsatisfactory.  Slave  parties  were  ac- 
tive ;  the  tribes  of  Mindanao  were  raided  and  oppressed ; 
there  was  violence  and  disorder  everywhere.  The  Sultan 
of  Sulu,  Jamalul  Kiram,  was  a  weak  man  and  his  feudal 
datus  defied  him.  The  Sultan  of  Magindanao,  Mangingin, 
had  fled  from  the  Cotabato  valley  in  fear  of  a  rival,  Datu 
Ali,  and  was  a  refugee  on  Dumankilas  Bay.  Such  condi- 
tions could  not  be  ignored  and  it  was  felt  that  American 
authority  must  be  exerted.  On  June  1,  1903,  the  Com- 
mission passed  an  act  for  the  organization  and  government 
of  the  Moro  Province,  which  was  made  to  embrace  the 


1"  Treaty  with  the  Sultan  of  Sulu,  Message  of  the  President."  Sen- 
Doc.  136,  56th  Cong.  1st  sess.  Tlie  authentic  reading  of  the  Moro  copy- 
is  given  in  Saleeby's  History  of  Sulu, 


A   DECADE    OF  AMERICAN  GOVERNMENT.  57 

five  districts  or  sub-provinces  of  Sulu,  Samboanga,  Lanao, 
Cotabato,  and  Davao.  The  law  was  based  mainly  on  a 
draft  prepared  by  Gen.  Geo.  W.  Davis,  who  had  been 
in  command  of  the  American  forces  in  this  region.  It 
entrusted  the  government  of  the  Moro  province  to  a 
board  of  six  members, —  a  governor,  seci-etary,  treasurer, 
engineer,  attorney,  and  superintendent  of  schools.  This 
board  was  given  large  legislative  powers  subject  to  ratifi- 
cation by  the  Commission.  The  board  was  specifically 
empowered  to  create  local  governments  among  the  Moros 
and  pagan  peoples  and  to  collect  and  codify  the  Moro 
customary  law,  giving  it  such  application  as  seemed 
proper  in  suits  between  the  Moros.  It  was  particularly 
charged  to  suppress  slavery  and  slave  raiding.  A  gov- 
ernor, secretary,  and  treasurer  were  to  be  appointed  for 
each  district.  A  special  constabulary  force  was  authorized 
in  which  the  Moros  could  be  enlisted.  Forestry  taxes  and 
customs  receipts  collected  at  any  ports  in  the  provinces 
were  to  be  returned  to  the  provincial  treasury.  The  law 
provided  that  army  officers  might  be  detailed  for  the 
executive  positions,  and  as  the  continued  employment  of 
American  troops  was  necessary,  this  was  naturally  done. 
The  first  governor  was  Gen.  Leonard  Wood,  who  had 
been  governor-general  of  Cuba  during  the  American  occu- 
pation. He  was  succeeded  in  1906  by  Gen.  Tasker  H. 
Bliss  and  he  in  1909  by  Gen.  John  J.  Pershing.  The 
policy  inaugurated  by  General  Wood  for  restoring  order 
generally  ignored  the  traditional  authority  of  the  sultans 
and  the  datus.  For  the  first  time  in  their  history  the  Mo- 
ros found  their  internal  affairs  interfered  with  and  their 
local  governments  threatened.  There  was  little  under- 
standing 3,nd  juuch  prejudice  on    both  sides  and   severe 


68  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

fighting  followed  on  the  island  of  Jolo,  around  Lake  Lanao 
and  in  the  Pulangi  valley.  While  the  losses  from  these 
wars  were  severe  among  the  Moros  and  resulted  in  the 
death  of  their  most  turbulent  leaders  and  fighting  men, 
the  resisting  spirit  of  the  race  was  unbroken.  Military 
posts  continued  to  be  imperilled  by  attacks  of  fanatical 
devotees,  called  "  juramentados,"  and  outlaws  with  a  few 
followers  continued  to  murder  and  raid.  One  such  outlaw 
and  pirate,  named  Jakiri,  was  finally  killed  in  a  cave  near 
Jolo  in  1909.  As  late  as  1912  a  numerous  band  of  rene- 
gades occupied  an  extinct  crater  on  Jolo  island  and  were 
exterminated  only  after  severe  campaigning.  In  several 
parts  of  the  province  progress  has  been  made  by  the 
establishment  of  general  markets  or  "  exchanges  "  and 
some  successful  schools  have  been  conducted. 

The  Davao  region  contains  but  few  Moro  inhabitants, 
the  native  people  being  scattered  communities  of  pagans, 
Bagobo,  Mandaya,  and  Tagakaolo.  Here  the  abundance 
of  unoccupied  land  suited  to  the  raising  of  hemp  attracted 
a  considerable  number  of  American  planters.  Trouble 
with  labor  supply  occasioned  the  introduction  of  settlers 
from  Cebu  and  results  have  been  fairly  encouraging, 
although  the  hill  people  have  occasionally  committed 
murders  and  depredations  and  in  1906  the  district  gov- 
ernor. Lieutenant  Bolton,  was  murdered  by  a  Tagakaolo 
chieftain  or  "  bagani." 

An  exceedingly  difficult  task  undertaken  by  General 
Pershing  was  the  disarming  of  the  Moros.  The  importa- 
tion of  arms  from  Borneo  and  other  quarters  had  always 
been  difficult  to  prohibit,  and  the  Moros  themselves  are 
famed  forgers  of  native  swords,  krises,  and  barongs.  Ev- 
ery datu  possessed  a  number  of  brass  cannon  or  "  lantaka." 


A    DECADE    OF  AMERICAN  GOVERNMENT.  59 

The  surrender  of  these  arms  has  weakened  tlie  resisting 
power  of  the  Moros  and  lessened  the  incentive  to  violence 
and  slave  raiding. 

Whatever  the  future  of  these  Moro  peoples,  policy 
would  seem  to  dictate  their  being  left  to  unhamj^ered 
American  authority.  That  this,  rather  than  Filipino 
government,  is  their  own  preference  was  sufficiently 
indicated  by  the  passionate  statements  of  several  Moro 
datus  to  Secretary  Dickinson  on  his  visit  to  Samboanga 
in  1910. 

Summary  and  Retrospect.  —  Looking  back  over  the 
decade  which  has  here  been  reviewed,  the  distinctive 
features  of  a  noble  and  generous  policy  can  be  seen. 
Peace  and  order  have  been  won  from  a  long  and  desperate 
period  of  commotion  and  discontent;  a  judicial  system 
has  been  established  with  codes  of  law  which  make  justice 
prompt  and  effective  ;  great  material  improvements  have 
been  undertaken,  railroads  built,  navigation  developed, 
agriculture  revived,  and  commerce  expanded  to  a  point  of 
importance  in  the  world's  tmde.  But  these  attainments, 
great  as  they  are,  would  not  entitle  the  Philippines  to  the 
special  attention  of  the  student  of  dependencies.  Like 
benefits  have  been  attained  elsewhere  by  just  and  able 
colonial  governments.  Given  a  well-peopled  country  of 
natural  wealth  and  such  results  are  not  difficult  to  men 
who  can  draw  upon  the  organized  resources  and  trained 
effectiveness  of  the  modern  world.  The  distinctive  achieve- 
ment of  the  American  administration  in  the  Philippines  is 
in  the  social  and  spiritual  transformation  of  the  Filipinos 
themselves :  the  pains  taken  to  make  better  men.  Ameri- 
can claims  of  contributing  to  the  world's  experience  in  the 
governance  of  empire  lie  in  the  persooal  and  political  lib- 


60  THE   PHILIPPINES. 

erty   guaranteed  to  the  Filipinos  and   in  the  success  of 
popular  education. 

Public  Instruction.  —  The  public  school  system  has  been 
at  the  basis  of  the  effort  and  exemplifies  the  idealism  of 
the  American  plan.  The  law  establishing  the  Bureau  of 
Education  authorized  the  employment  of  a  thousand  Amer- 
ican teachers.  Nearly  that  number  were  at  work  in  all 
parts  of  the  islands  in  1902.  Subsequently  the  adminis- 
tration was  developed.  Superintendents  were  appointed, 
one  for  each  province,  and  in  1904  the  provinces  were  di- 
vided into  more  than  400  districts,  each  in  charge  of  a  su- 
pervising teacher,  and  the  effort  was  made  to  attain  a  com- 
plete system  of  primary  schools,  adequate  to  give  to  every 
child  a  brief  training  of  three  or  four  years.  The  most  ad- 
vanced pupils  of  the  American  teachers  were  employed  as 
primary  teachers  under  close  supervision  and  hundreds  of 
schools  opened  in  rural  barrios  where  the  population  had 
no  opportunities  of  learning.  The  response  of  the  Filipi- 
nos to  this  program  was  immediate.  The  complete  rudi- 
mentary education  of  the  islands  was  brought  within 
promise  of  attainment  when  by  1908,  600,000  children 
were  under  instruction  in  these  schools.  English  has 
been  diffused  throughout  the  Archipelago  and  a  force  of 
8000  Filipino  teachers  trained  to  give  primaiy  instruction 
in  this  language.  In  1905  intermediate  schools  were  be- 
gun which  offer  three-year  courses  following  the  primary 
course.  These  have  developed  into  industrial  schools 
with  a  variety  of  practical  coui-ses.  Graduates  of  these 
schools  may  be  found  in  a  very  great  number  of  useful 
occupations,  including  the  civil  service.  Completing  the 
public  school  plan  are  the  high  schools,  one  in  each  prov- 
ince.    They  are  actually  colleges  or  institutes  and  have 


A    DECADE   OF  AMERICAN   GOVERNMENT.  61 

ample  grounds,  numerous  buildings,  shops,  and  dormito- 
ries. The  high  schools  are  the  real  intellectual  and  social 
centers  for  each  province  and  have  commanded  the  fullest 
entliusiasm  of  the  Filipinos,  who  have  made  sacrifices  to 
gain  them.  Two  interesting  features  of  the  public  school 
work  which  have  had  much  emphasis  are  industrial  work 
and  athletics.  The  industrial  work  in  primary  schools 
consists  in  instruction  in  the  many  beautiful  native  arts 
and  industries  which  thus  become  household  employments 
and  contribute  to  the  income  of  families.  This  industrial 
teaching  was  especially  encouraged  and  standardized  for 
all  primary  schools  by  ]\Ir.  Frank  R.  White  who  became 
Director  of  Education  in  December,  1909,  and  who  died  in 
Manila,  August  7,  1913,  after  nearly  twelve  yeare  of  edu- 
cational service  in  the  Philippines.  In  intermediate  and 
high  schools  the  courses  of  an  industrial  character  are  of 
foreign  introduction  and  include  mechanical  drawing,  wood 
and  iron  working,  agriculture,  commercial  branches,  do- 
mestic science,  and  nui-sing. 

Public  Health.  —  The  physique  of  the  Filipino  is  also 
being  modified  for  the  better.  The  race  is  physically 
small,  but  agile,  athletic,  and  comely.  The  schools  have 
introduced  everywhere  the  games  of  ball  and  athletic 
sports  of  America  to  the  notable  moral  benefit  of  the  pop- 
ulation. The  old  sports  of  cock  fighting  and  gaming  have 
failed  to  interest  the  rising  generation.  The  Bureau  of 
Health  has  scored  repeated  triumphs  in  combatting  dis- 
eases and  in  educating  the  people  to  a  new  attitude 
toward  sickness  and  death.  Bubonic  plague  has  been 
practically  non-existent  since  1903.  Smallpox  was  finally 
checked  after  complete  vaccination  of  the  population  in 
1908.     Cholera,  which  has  appeared  sporadically  since  the 


62  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

epidemic  of  1902-3,  has  been  promptly  controlled.  Tu- 
berculosis and  beriberi  are  yielding  before  improved  diet 
and  a  better  standard  of  life.  Leprosy  formerly  claimed 
many  victims.  These  have  been  isolated  at  the  leper 
colony  on  the  island  of  Kulion  and  necessary  steps  taken 
against  the  ravages  of  this  dread  affliction. 

The  Bureau  of  Science  and  the  University.  —  Closely 
associated  with  the  work  of  public  health  is  the  Bureau  of 
Science.  It  has  combined  biological,  medical,  and  chemi- 
cal research  with  the  advance  of  pure  science  along  many 
lines.  It  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  and  noble  estab- 
lishments for  the  discovery  of  useful  knowledge  in  the 
tropical  world.  It  is  a  monument  to  its  first  director.  Dr. 
Paul  C.  Freer,  who  died  in  the  islands  in  1912. 

The  University  of  the  Philippines  was  created  by  act  of 
the  legislature  in  1908.  It  includes  colleges  of  Arts, 
Medicine,  Engineering,  Law,  Agriculture,  Veterinary- 
Science,  and  a  school  of  Fine  Arts. 

Filipino  Aspirations In  the  face  of  these  benefits  the 

Filipinos  are  not  unappreciative,  but  they  demand  still 
more.  Naturally  an  ambitious,  self-confident,  and  daring 
race,  they  believe  themselves  already  sufficiently  numer- 
ous, compact,  and  disciplined  to  begin  independent  life 
as  a  nation.  The  policy  inaugurated  by  President  Mc  Kin- 
ley,  Secretary  Root,  and  Governor  Taft  has  never  been  hos- 
tile to  the  Filipinos'  ambition  for  nationality.  It  has  ever 
treated  this  aspiration  as  legitimate.  It  has,  however, 
taken  due  count  of  the  difficulties  and  of  the  dangers  from 
its  too  early  realization.  Having  accepted  American  re- 
sponsibility for  the  Archipelago,  it  has  guarded  the  final 
supremacy  of  American  authority.  It  is  apparent,  how- 
ever, that  a  complete  accord  has  not  yet  been  reached  be- 


A   DECADE   OF  AMERICAN  GOVERNMENT.  63 

tweeii  Americans  and  Filipinos  and  that  a  new  basis  of 
relationship  is  to  be  attempted. 

The  Democratic  Administration.  —  The  year  1913  wit- 
nessed the  end  of  a  defniite  period  in  the  history  of  adniin- 
isti-ation  in  the  Philippines  and  the  introduction  of  another 
policy  under  the  auspices  of  the  Democi-atic  Party.  Since 
the  Spanish-American  war  the  two  great  parties  in  the 
United  States  have  been  no  more  sharply  divided  on  any 
issue  than  on  that  of  the  Philippines.  In  the  election  of 
1900  the  Democrats  made  "imperialism"  the  "pani- 
mount  issue. "  Again  in  1904  attacks  upon  what  had 
been  done  in  the  Philippines  were  a  large  part  of  their 
campaign.  In  1908  and  1912,  while  the  Philippines  were 
little  considered,  the  platforms  of  the  Democratic  party 
continued  to  denounce  the  retention  of  the  islands  and  to 
advocate  their  earliest  possible  separation.  The  election 
of  President  Wilson  and  a  Democratic  Congress  in  1912 
was  thus  assumed  both  in  the  Philippines  and  the  United 
States  to  presage  the  end  of  one  policy  and  the  commence- 
ment of  a  radically  different  one.  Following  the  inaugu- 
ration of  President  Wilson,  the  members  of  the  Philippine 
Commission  placed  their  resignations  in  his  hands.  While 
the  Philippine  service  had  never  been  treated  as  a  partisan 
field  by  the  Republican  party,  all  these  resignations  were 
accepted  except  that  of  one  Filipino  commissioner,  Mr. 
Palma.  A  complete  reorganization  of  the  Commission 
resulted. 

Inauguration  of  Governor-General  Harrison.  —  To  the 
post  of  Governor-General  was  appointed  Mr.  Burton  Har- 
rison, a  Democratic  congressman  from  New  York,  who 
reached  the  islands  October  6,  1913.  Mr.  Forbes  had  al- 
ready departed    and  Vice-Governor-General  Gilbert  and 


64  THE   PHILIPPINES. 

Secretary  Worcester  retired  immediately.  The  position 
of  Secretary  of  Commerce  and  Police  had  been  vacant  for 
more  than  a  year.  Thus  at  the  commencement  of  his  ad- 
ministration Governor-General  Harrison  had  not  a  single 
department  head  nor  one  American  colleague.  In  his  in- 
augural speech  he  announced  on  behalf  of  the  President 
a  promise  to  appoint  to  the  Commission  a  majority  of  Fili- 
pino members,  thus  giving  to  the  people  of  the  islands 
control  of  the  upper  branch  of  the  legislature,  and  the 
power  to  ratify  all  appointments  and  to  exercise  jurisdic- 
tion over  the  non-Christian  peoples.  The  following  ap- 
pointments were  announced  in  fulfillment  of  this  promise  : 
Mr.  Justice  Mapa  of  the  Supreme  Court  to  be  Secretary 
of  Finance  and  Justice ;  and  Mr.  Jaime  de  Veyra,  former 
governor  of  Leyte  and  member  of  the  Assembly,  Mr.  Vi- 
cente Singson,  member  of  the  Asssembly  from  Ilokos  Sur, 
and  Mr.  Vicente  Ilustre  of  Batangas,  to  be  commission- 
ers. As  American  members  President  Wilson  appointed 
Mr.  Henderson  E.  Martin  of  Kansas,  Vice-Governor-Gen- 
eral and  Secretary  of  Public  Instruction ;  Mr.  John  L. 
Riggs,  Secretary  of  Commerce  and  Police ;  and  Mr.  Win- 
fred  T.  Denison  of  New  York,  Secretary  of  the  Interior. 
Many  changes  in  the  subordinate  positions  of  the 
Philippines  followed  Mr.  Harrison's  taking  of  office,  in- 
cluding the  dismissal  of  several  heads  of  bureaus.  One 
important  step  was  the  retirement  from  the  Moro  province 
of  General  Pershing  with  the  complete  withdrawal  of  the 
American  regiments  which  had  been  stationed  there  for 
defence  against  the  Moros,  and  the  appointment  as  Moro 
Governor  of  Mr.  Frank  Carpenter,  the  Executive  Secre- 
tary. This  was  expected  to  end  the  participation  of  the 
army  in  the  government  of  the  Moros.     It  was  announced 


A   DECADE   OF  AMERICAN  GOVERNMENT.  65 

that  the  vacant  parts  of  the  Moro  province  would  be 
coh)nized  by  Filipinos  and  the  effort  made  to  assimilate 
the  Moros  into  the  Filipino  nation.  To  the  place  at  the 
head  of  the  Executive  Bureau  was  appointed  the  Attorney- 
General,  Judge  Ignacio  Villamor. 

The  Assembly  convened  on  October  16.  Mr.  Harrison 
read  his  message  at  the  opening.  It  called  attention  to  a 
threatened  deficit  of  more  than  four  million  dollars  and 
advocated  rigorous  retrenchment,  reduction  of  salaries,  and 
elimination  of  superfluous  positions.  It  announced  that 
no  more  American  employees  would  at  present  be  engaged. 

These  steps  seemed  to  presage  the  intention  of  the 
Democratic  administration  to  seek  from  Congress  an  early 
separation  of  the  islands,  a  solution  provided  for  by  a  bill 
introduced  into  the  House  of  Representatives  by  Con- 
gressman Jones  of  Virginia,  which  had  the  appearance  of 
being  the  party  measure.  This  bill  provided  for  Philip- 
pine independence  through  the  establishment  of  a  republic 
in  1921.  It  further  imposed  upon  the  President  to  seek 
for  this  republic  an  international  status  of  neutrality.^ 

There  would  seem,  however,  to  be  but  two  probable 
futures  before  the  Philippines  —  either  a  continuance  of 
the  policy  of  the  last  decade,  the  islands  remaining  under 
American  sovereignty  with  a  government  wherein  ultimate 


1  Since  the  above  paragraph  was  written  the  "Jones  Bill "  has  been 
reported  in  a  much  modified  form.  Philippine  independence  is  no 
longer  promised  in  1921  but  deferred  to  a  future  date  ;  the  Commission 
is  abolished  and  a  "Senate"  chosen  by  the  Filipinos  is  provided  as  an 
upper  chamber.  The  executive  power  remains  in  a  governor-general 
appointed  by  the  President  of  the  United  States.  This  combination  of 
a  native  legislature  and  a  foreign  appointed  executive  seems  to  revive 
the  discredited  type  of  colonial  government  which  prevailed  in  the 
American  colonies  before  their  rebellion  against  Great  Britain. 


66  TEE  PHILIPPINES. 

authority  is  vested  in  the  representatives  of  the  United 
States,  or  tlie  complete  abandonment  of  the  islands  to  their 
own  support.  The  latter  is  an  intelligible  policy  and 
would  have  advocates  in  the  United  States,  but  the  final 
judgment  of  history  will  not  relieve  from  odium  the  party 
or  the  people  which  dissipates  the  achievements  of  the 
last  ten  years.  The  establishment  of  orderly  and  progres- 
sive society  is  too  precious  a  thing  to  civilization  to  save 
from  execration  those  who  would  suffer  it  to  sink  in  strife 
and  sedition  and  permit  its  elements  to  be  scattered  over 
tlie  China  Sea  like  the  debris  of  a  typhoon. 


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